Bhagya

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

• A number of important changes occurred in the economic and political life of India during the period from 600 BCE to 600 CE.
• The changes occurred during this period had left a deep mark on the contemporary society.
• A new change began to occur with the expansion of agriculture.
• Emergence of different crafts and distinct social groups also witnessed during this period.
• Social disparities began to increase as a result of unequal distribution of wealth.
• Historian made use of textual tradition for many reasons.
• According to the text written in ancient the most popular and famous is Mahabharata, which was composed between 500 BCE and 500 CE.
• Historians believed that it was written by Ved Vyasa, but most of the Historians think that it is the creation of many authors.
• In the beginning, Mahabharata was known by the name of Jail and held only 8800 verses. Later on the number of verses increased to one lakh.
• An important work began in 1919 under the leadership of V.S. Sukthankar, a famous Sanskrit scholar who took up cudgels to prepare a critical edition of Mahabharata.
• Many types of social institutions existed in this period these were as follows;
  • Monogamous family
  • Polyandrous family
  • Polygons family
  • Consanguineous family
  • Patrilineal family
  • Matrilineal family
  • Neolocal family
  • Rural family
  • Urban family
  • Joint family
  • Nuclear family
• Kinship is a system of relation between such relatives which determine our relationship on the basis of lineage. These relations were based on lineage or vansha are developed by a family.
• Patriliny means that the descent which is traced from father to son, then grandson and great grandson.
• Patriliny was prevalent even before the Mahabharata, yet Mahabharata strengthen it.

Historians often use textual traditions to understand the socio-economic changes of the society. In this case, it is very necessary to keep in mind who composed what and for whom. The language and the ways in which the text is circulated are also important.

Kinship, Marriage Rules and Different Practices:

• Families usually form parts of larger network of people defined as relative or ‘Kinfolks’ while familial ties are often regarded as ‘natural’ and based on blood they are defined in many different ways.
• It is more difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of ordinary people than elite families.
• Mahabharata reinforced the ideal of patriliny as valuable. Under patriliny, sons could claim the throne or other resources of their fathers when the latter died.
• The idea of patriliny is also accepted in the Rigveda.
• Daughters had no claims to the resources of the household. Also marrying them into families outside the kin was desirable. Kanyadan or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.
• From 500 BCE, codes of social behaviour were compiled in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras written in Sanskrit. The most important Dharmashastra was Manusmriti compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE.
• Codes of social behaviour were given by the Brahmanas. There were eight forms of marriage, of which the first four were considered as good, while the remaining were condemned.
• People were classified according to their gotras. Two important rules about gotras were:
• Women were expected to give up their father’s golra and adopt their husband’s gotra.
• Members of the same gotra could not many
• In case of Satavahana rulers, it was evident that many of the wives of Satavahana rulers retained the names of their father’s gotra as against Brahmanical rule.
• Endogamy or marriage within the kingroup was prevalent among several communities in South India.

Social Differences:

• The Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras contained rules about the ideal ‘occupations’ of the four categories or varnas.
• Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed; Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice; Vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, pastoralism and trade; and Shudras were assigned to serve the three ‘higher’ varnas.
• According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be the kings. But in reality political power was effectively open to anyone w’ho could muster (assemble) support and resources and rarely depended on birth.
• Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani was a Brahmana who destroyed the pride of Kshatriyas. He ordered that there was no inter-marriage amongst members of the four varnas.
• Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds. There were other categories like Nishada (people living in forest) beyond the four varnas in society. Ekalavya is supposed to have belonged to this class.
• Sometimes those who spoke non-Sanskrit languages were labelled as Mlechchhas and looked down upon.
• Brahmanical scriptures developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories as ‘untouchable’.
• Those who performed ‘polluting’ activities like, handling corpses and dead animals were designated as ‘Chandalas’.
• The Manusmriti laid down the duties of Chandalas, these were—they had to live outside the village, use discarded utensils and wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron.
• Historians got hints of different social realities about the Chandalas from the non-Brahmanical texts.

Social Status and Right to Property:

• According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest.
• Women had no claim in her paternal estate, but were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana.
• According to Brahmanical text, apart from gender, criterion for regulating access to wealth was varna. The only ‘occupation’ prescribed for Shudras was servitude (slavery), while a variety of occupations were listed for men of first three varnas.
• The Buddhists recognised the differences in society, but did not regard these as natural or inflexible. They rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth.
• There were other possibilities as well; situations where men who were generous were respected, while those who were miserly were criticised.
• The Buddhists developed an alternative understanding of social inequalities and the institutions required to regulate social conflict.
• The institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of payment for services rendered by the king.

The Mahabharata:

The Great Indian Epic

• VS Sukthankar, a noted Indian Sanskritist, with his team initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata. It involved collecting Sanskrit manuscripts of the texts written in a variety of scripts, from different parts of the country.
• First historians accepted the texts written in Sanskrit as the main source, but later they also relied on works in Pali, Prakrit and Tamil to reconstruct social histories.

The Singificance of Mahabharata:

• Historians examine whether texts were written in Prakrit, Pali or Sanskrit languages. They try to find out about the authors whose perspectives and ideas shaped the text.
• The Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas.
• Historians classify the contents of the text under two broad heads, , narrative containing stories and didactic containing prescription and social norms.
• Mahabharata has been written in many phases. It is not the work of a single author. However, it is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa.
• Mahabharata contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements.
• One of the most challenging episodes in the Mahabharata is Draupadi’s marriage with five Pandavas.
• It suggests polyandry ( the practice of a woman having several husbands) among ruling elites.
• Some historians think that polyandry is undesirable from the Brahmanical point of view, but it was prevalent in the Himalayan region due to a shortage of women during war times.

Different Versions of Mahabharata:

• The versions of the Mahabharata were written in a variety of languages.
• Several stories from specific regions were added in the epic. The story of the epic was often retold in different ways.
• Writers like Mahashweta Devi interprets the stories of the Mahabharata differently.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 Important terms:

• Kinship: The person belonging the same family.
• Polity: The form or process or system of government.
• Kinfolk: Persons of blood relation.
• Patriliny: System of tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.
• Matriliny: System of tracing descent from mother side.
• Adi Parvan: Adi Parvan is the first section of the Sanskrit version of the Mahabharata.
• Indra: A god of warfare, rains and valour, one of the principal deities in the Rigveda.
• Dharmasutras: These are the texts composed in Sanskrit by Brahmanas.
• Mlechchhas: Shakas were regarded as Mlechchhas. They were the Central Asian people who had migrated and settled in the northwestern part of the Subcontinent.
• Majjhima Nikaya: It is a Buddhist text. It forms a part of a dialogue between a king named Avantiputta and a disciple of Buddha, named Kachchana.
• Gotras: People of the same kind and same vama.
• Shrenis: Unions of craftsmen and traders in Ancient India. It was also called guilds.
• Chandals: Untouchables of the ancient India who did menial works.
• Mahasammata: It means the great elect. A person chosen by the whole people.
• Nishad: A hunting community.
• Epic: A long poem about the deeds of great men and women or about a nation’s past history.
• Dwij: During Later Vedic period, people who adopted sacred thread system was caUedDwij.
• Endogamy: It refers to the system of marriage within the unit such as caste.
• Polygamy: Practice of having more than one wife.
• Polyandry: Practice of having more than one husband.
• Vamasha: Sanskrit word meaning lineage of a person.

Time Line:

• 500  BCE Ashfadhyayi of Panini, a work of Sanskrit grammar.
• 500-100  BCE Early Buddhist texts including the Tripitaka (in Pali)
• 500  BCE-400 CE Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit)
• 200  CE onwards Compilation of the Puranas (in Sanskrit)
• 300  CE Natyashastra of Bharata, a work on dramaturgy (in Sanskrit)
• 400-500  CE Sanskrit plays a valuable role in the compilation of Kalidasa’s works on astronomy and mathematics by Aryabhata and Varahamihira (in Sanskrit).

Class 12 History Notes

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies

• After the decline of Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), many significant changes took place in the Indian subcontinent.
• Vedas (Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharveda) and other religious and literary works are an invaluable source to know the history of that period.
• In first century BCE, many changes took place regarding the last rites of the dead in the central and south India. In this period dead bodies were buried in graves and these graves were surrounded by big stone called as the megaliths.
• In the 6th century BCE sixteen big kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas came into existence.
• Among these sixteen Mahajanapadas were-Magadha, Koshala, Vatsa and Avant whichwere the most powerful. .
• In the 5th century BCE, the powerful Mahajanapadas turned into powerful empires.
• Magadha was very powerful Mahajanapada. There were several causes responsible for it.
• Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Mauryan Empire. He founded Mauryan Empire by defeating the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty, Mahajanapadas.
• Megasthenes’s Indica and Kautilya’s Arthashastra provided valuable information about the Mauryan Empire.
• After the death of Chandragupta Maurya’s his son, Bindusara became the next ruler who ruled from 298 to 272 BCE.
• After Bindusara, Ashoka occupied the throne in 272 and ruled till 231 BCE.
• After the Kalinga War, Ashoka gave up policy of war and expansion.
• Inscriptions of Ashoka are the most relevant sources to know about Mauryan period. These inscriptions are written in the Brahmi (Prakrit) script.
• After the downfall of the Gupta Dynasty many new dynasties came up and ruled in many parts of India. Some of the dynasties were the Satvahanas, the Shakas, the Pandyas, the Cholas, Cheras and Kushanas.
• With the emergence of the Gupta, a new age started in the ancient Indian History.
• The founder of the Gupta Dynasty was Srigupta. He founded this dynasty in 275 CE and ruled till 300. After his death his son Ghatotkacha ruled from 300 CE to 320 CE.
• Ghatotkacha’s successor Chandragupta I sat on the throne in 320 and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He ruled till 335 CE.
• Sumudragupta is one of the greatest rulers of India and was the son of Chandragupta. He ruled from 335 to 375 CE. After his death Chandragupta-II ruled till 415.
• The Gupta ruler established a glorious empire with their untiring efforts. Their rule is called the Golden Age in Indian History. This vast Empire began to disintegrate at the end of the 5th century CE.

Development after the Harappan Civilization:

• After the decline of the Harappan Civilization, several developments, including the composition of Rigveda took place in Indian sub-continent. Evidences of emergence of agricultural settlements, pastoral communities and new modes of disposal of dead were found.
• The most important development was from 6th century BCE on wards when various empires and kingdoms emerged. In 1830, James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts used in earliest inscriptions and coins.
• Most of the inscriptions referred a king as Piyadassi, meant ‘pleasant to behold’ and a few inscriptions mentioned the king as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers known from Buddhist texts. It gave a new direction to investigate into early Indian political history, economic and social developments.

The Mahajanapadas:

• The earliest states emerged in the 6th century BCE which were mentioned in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts. The earliest 16 states were known as mahajanapadas. In which Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandliara and Avanti were most important. The mahajanapadas had a capital city, which was often fortified.
• Brahmanas began composing Dharmasutras from the 6th century BCE onwards. Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda were the most ambitious kings of Magadha. Magadha had its capital in Rajagaha (Rajgir) which was fortified and later the capital shifted to Pataliputra (Patna).

Mauryan Empire:

• Development of Magadha resulted in the emergence of the Mauryan empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE. Besides sculptures, historians have used a variety of sources like written texts of Megasthenes, Kautilya (Arthashastra), Buddhist) Jaina and Puranic literature, inscriptions of Asoka to reconstruct the history of Mauryan empire.
• Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri were the five major political centres of Mauryan empire.
• The vast empire was not controlled by a uniform administrative system. Asoka tried to hold his vast empire together by propagating dharma. He appointed special officers, known as the Dhamma Mahamatta, to spread the message of Dhamma.

Asokan Inscription:

• In deciphering Brahmi, the European scholars and Indian scholars compared Devanagari and Bengali scripts with Brahmi script. After painstaking work, James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.
• Kharosthi was deciphered by studying coins which had both Greek and Kharosthi scripts. Asoka was mentioned in the inscriptions as ‘Devanampiya’ meant ‘beloved of the God’ and ‘Piyadassi’ meant ‘pleasant to behold’.
• From the Asokan inscription, we know the anguish of the ruler and the change in his attitude towards warfare. These inscriptions have been found in Odisha.

The Limitations of Inscriptions:

• There are technical limitations, like faintly engraved, damaged or missing letters in inscriptional evidence. Sometimes what we consider politically and economically significant was not recorded in the inscriptions.
• The content of inscriptions invariably projects the perspective of the person who commissioned these.
• The inscriptions are unable to reflect about the life of different social groups including the marginalised groups. Thus, new strategies of analysis should be adopted.

Emergence of Concept Kingship:

• Different rulers in the various parts of India established their empire. This gave rise to new kingdoms, new communities and towns.

Emergence of New Kingdoms:

• New kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and further South, including the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. Satavahanas and Shakas derived revenues from long-distance trade. Kushanas ruled over a vast kingdom and considered themselves as God, adopting the title Devaputra (Son of God).
• Histories of the Gupta rulers were reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions, including Prashastis. The Prayaga Prashasti (also called Allahabad pillar inscription) by Harisena is the most important source to know about the Gupta rulers.

Emergence of New Communities:

• Historians examined stories of Jatakas and Panchatantra to know about the view of common people regarding the rulers. Strategies for increasing agricultural production were developed, including use of iron-tipped plough and the use of irrigation through wells and tanks.
• Advancement of agriculture led to emergence of different communities of people, viz, large landholders, small peasants and landless agricultural labourers. From early Tamil literature and Pali texts, categories of people like Gahapati (master of a household), Vellar (large land owners), Uzhavar (plough men) and Adimai (slaves) are known.
• Inscription gave details about the land grants to Brahmanas and Peasants. Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II had access to land, which she later granted, but common women had no access to lands. Some historians think that land grant is a strategy to extend agriculture to new areas; others thought it as the indication of weakening of political power.

Emergence of Towns and Trade:

• Several urban centres emerged in the sub-continent from the 6th century’ BCE. People living in these areas traded artefacts like fine pottery known as Northern black polished ware, ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and teracotta.
• Guilds or Shrenis procured raw materials, regulated production and marketed the finished product. The trade extended beyond the sub-continent, Central Asia, East and North Africa, South-East Asia and China.
• Successful merchants, designated as Masattuvan in Tamil, Set this and Satavahanas in Prakrit  became very’ rich. Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of silver, copper and gold coins.
• The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the North-Western part of the sub-continent in 2nd century BCE.
• The first gold coins were issued in 1st century’ CE by the Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. From the 6th century CE on wards, the use of gold coins w^ras reduced.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 2 Important Terms:

• Janapada: The land where the people belonging to a clan or tribe had settled.
• Dhammo Mahanatta: Officer appointed by Ashoka to spread the message of his Dharma.
• Matriliny: This term is used when descent is traced through mother.
• Tamilakam: The name of the ancient Tamil country which included the parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
• Megaliths: Stone structures which were built by some communities of South India over the grave of the dead.
• Vellators: The big zamindars.
• Agrahara: The land which Brahmanas got as land grants.

Time Line:

• 600-500: BCE Emergence of Mahajanapadas
• 544-492:  BCE Reign of Bimbisara
• 492-460:  BCE Tenure of Ajatsatru
• 269-231:  BCE Reign of Ashoka
• 201:  BCE Kalinga war was fought
• 335-375:  BCE Reign of Sumudragupta
• 375-415:  CE Reign of Chandragupta-II
• 1784:  Asiatic Society (Bengal) was founded
• 1810:  Colin Mackenzie collects over 8,000 inscriptions in Sanskrit and Dravidian languages.
• 1838:  Brahmi script James Prinsept deciphered.
• 1877:  Alexander Cunningham published a set of Asokan inscriptions.
• 1886:  First issue of Epigraphia Camatica, journal of South Indian inscriptions.
• 1888: First issue of Epigraphia Indica.
• 1965-66:  D.C. Sircar published Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical Glossary.

Class 12 History Notes

Therapeutic Approaches And Counselling –  CBSE Notes for Class 12 Psychology

CBSE NotesCBSE Notes PsychologyNCERT Solutions Psychology

FACTS THAT MATTER
Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the one seeking treatment or the
client and the one who treats or the therapist.
1. Purpose: To help the client to solve the psychological problems being faced by her or him.
2. Aim: To change the maladaptive behaviours, decrease the sense of personal distress, and help the client to adapt better to his/her environment.
3. The relationship is conducive for building the trust of the client so that problems may be freely discussed.
Characteristics:
1. There is systematic application of principles underlying the different theories of therapy.
2. Only persons who have received practical training under expert supervision can practise psychotherapy.
3. The situation involved a therapist and client who seeks and receives help for his/her emotional problems (this person is the focus of attention in the therapeutic process).
4. The interaction of the therapist and the client results in the consolidation or formation of the therapeutic relationship. This is a confidential, interpersonal, and dynamic relationship.
Goals:
(i) Reinforcing client’s resolve for betterment.
(ii) Lessening emotional pressure.
(iii) Unfolding the potential for positive growth.
(iv) Modifying habits.
(v) Changing thinking patterns.
(vi) Increasing self-awareness.
(vii) Improving interpersonal relations and communication.
(viii) Facilitating decision-making.
(ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in life.
(x) Relating to one’s social environment in a more creative and self-aware manner.
Therapeutic Relationship:
The special relationship between the client and the therapist is known as the therapeutic
relationship or alliance.
Components:
1. Contractual Nature of the Relationship: Two willing individuals, the client and the therapist, enter into a partnership which aims at helping the client overcome his/ her problems.
2. Limited Duration of the Therapy: This alliance lasts until the client becomes able to deal with his/her problems and take control of his/her life.
Properties:
(i) It is a trusting and confiding relationship.
(ii) The high level of trust enables the client to unburden herself/himself to the therapist and confide her/his psychological and personal problems to the latter.
Classification of Psychotherapies

A. PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY (Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Neo-Freudians) Methods of Eliciting the Nature of Intrapsychic Conflict:
1. Free Association:
(i) Therapeutic relationship is established, client feels comfortable—therapist makes client lie down on the couch, close their eyes and asks them to speak whatever comes to mind without censoring it.
(ii) Client is encouraged to freely associate one thought with another (free association).
(iii) Censoring supere go and the watchful ego are kept in abeyance—client speaks whatever comes to mind in a relaxed and trusting atmosphere.
(iv) Therapist does not interrupt; the free flow of idea, desires and conflicts of the unconscious, which had been suppressed by the ego, emerge into the conscious mind.
2. Dream Analysis:
(i) Client is asked to write down his/her dreams upon waking up.
(ii) Drams are symbols of the unfulfilled desires of the unconscious.
(iii) Dreams use symbols which signify intrapsychic forces because they are indirect expressions and hence would not alert the ego.
(iv) If unfulfilled desires are expressed directly, the ever-vigilant ego would suppress them, leading to anxiety.
(v) Symbols are interpreted according to an accepted convention of translation as the indicators of unfulfilled desires and conflicts.
Modality of Treatment:
(a) Transference: The client starts identifying the therapist with the authority figures of the past, usually childhood.
(i) The therapist maintains a non-judgmental and permissive attitude and allows the client to continue with this process of emotional identification.
(ii) Transference Neurosis: The therapist becomes a substitute for that person in the present—the client acts out the frustrations, anger, fear, that he/she harboured towards that person in the past, but could not express at the time.
• Positive Transference: The client idolizes, or falls in love with the therapist, and seeks the therapist’s approval.
• Negative Transference: The client has feelings of hostility, anger and resentment*towards the therapist.
(b) Resistance: The client opposes the progress of therapy in order to protect himself/herself from the recall of painful unconscious memories.
(i) Conscious Resistance: The client deliberately hides some information
(ii) Unconscious Resistance: The client becomes silent during the therapy session, recalls trivial details without recalling the emotional ones, misses appointments, and comes late for therapy sessions.
(iii) The therapist overcomes the resistance by repeatedly confronting the patient about it and by uncovering emotions such as anxiety, fear 0’r shame, which are causing the resistance.
(c) Interpretation: The therapist uses the unconscious material that has bee n uncovered to make the client aware of the psychic contents and conflicts which, have led to the occurrence of certain events, symptoms and conflicts.
(i) Subtle process, the pinnacle of psychoanalysis.
(ii) Two analytical techniques:
• Confrontation: The therapist points out to the client an aspect of his/her psyche that must be faced by the client.
• Clarification: The therapist brings a vague or confusing event into sharp focus by separating and highlighting important details about the event from unimportant ones.
Working Through: The repeated process of using confrontation, clarification and interpretation.
(i) Helps the patient understand the source of the problem and to integrate the uncovered material into his/her ego.
Insight: A gradual process wherein the unconscious memories are repeatedly integrated into conscious awareness; these unconscious events and memories are re-experienced in transference and are worked through.
(i) End-point of psychoanalysis, client gains a new understanding on him/ herself- conflicts of the past, defence mechanisms and physical symptoms are no longer present.
(ii) Intellectual Insight: The client starts understand herself/himself better at an intellectual level.
(iii) Emotional Insight: The emotional understanding, acceptance of one’s irrational reaction to the unpleasant events o the past, and the willingness to change emotionally as well as making the change.
Duration of Treatment
• Lasts of several years with a one-hour session for 4-5 days per week.
• Intense treatment, three phases.
(i) Initial Phase: Client becomes familiar with the routines, establishes a therapeutic relationship, and recollects the superficial material from the consciousness about the past and present.
(ii) Middle Phase: Characterised by transference, resistance on the part
of the client, and confrontation, clarification and working through on the therapist’s part; all these processes finally lead to insight.
(iii) Third Phase: Termination; the relationship with the analyst is dissolved and the client prepares to leave the therapy.
B. BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
• Focused on the behaviour and thoughts of the client in the present.
• The past is relevant only to the extent of understanding the origins of the faulty behaviour and thought patterns, not relieved.
• Behaviour therapies are clinical application of learning theories.
• Consists of a large set of specific techniques and interventions—symptoms of the client and the clinical diagnosis are the guiding factors in the selection of the specific techniques or interventions to be applied.
• Open therapy, i.e., the therapist shares his/her method with the client.
Method of Treatment:
(i) The client is interviewed with a view to analyse his/her behaviour patterns.
(ii) Behavioural analysis is conducted to find:
(a) Malfunctioning Behaviours: Behaviours which cause distress to the client.
(b) Antecedent Factors: Those causes which predispose the person to indulge in that behaviour
(c) Maintaining Factors: Those factors which lead to the persistence of the faulty behaviour.
(iii) Aim: To eliminate the faulty behaviours and substitute them with adaptive behaviour patterns.
(a) Antecedent Operations: Control behaviour by changing something that precedes such a behaviour.
(b) Establishing Operations: Induce a change in behaviour by increasing or decreasing the reinforcing value of a particular consequence.
(c) Consequent Operation: i.e., Giving reinforcement eg. Praise.
Behavioural Techniques:
1. Negative Reinforcement: Following an undesired response with an outcome that is painful or not liked.
2. Aversive Conditioning: Repeated association of undesired response with an aversive consequence present reality.
3. Positive Reinforcement: Given to increase the deficit if an adaptive behaviour occurs rarely.
4. Token Economy: Give a token as a reward every time a wanted behaviour occurs, which can be collected and exchanged for a reward.
5. Differential Reinforcement: Unwanted behaviour can be reduced (negative reinforcement) and wanted behaviour (positive reinforcement) can be increased simultaneously.
The other method is to positively reinforce the wanted behaviour and ignore the unwanted behaviour—less painful and equally effective.
6. Systematic Desensitization: A technique introduced by Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational fears.
(i) The client is interviewed to elicit fear provoking situations.
(ii) With the client, the therapist prepares a hierarchy of anxiety—provoking stimuli with the least anxiety-provoking stimuli at the bottom.
(iii) The therapist relaxes the client and asks the client to think about the least anxiety-provoking situation.
(iv) The client is asked to stop thinking of the situation if tension is felt.
(v) Over sessions, the client is able to imagine more severe fear provoking situations while maintaining the relaxation.
(vi) The client gets systematically desensitized to the fear.
Operates on the principle of reciprocal inhibition—the presence of two mutually opposing forces (relaxation response vs. anxiety-provoking scene) at the same time, inhibits the weaker force.
The client is able to tolerate progressively greater levels of anxiety because of his/her relaxed state.
7. Modelling: The procedure wherein the client learns to behave in a certain way by observing the behaviour of a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the rok; model. Vicarious learning, learning by observing others, is used and through a process of rewarding small changes in the behaviour, the client gradually learns to acquire the behaviour of the model.
C. COGNITIVE THERAPY
1. Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) (Albert Ellis):
• Irrational beliefs mediate between the antecedent events and their consequences.
• The first step in RET is the antecedent-belief-consequence (ABC) analysis.
Antecedent events, which caused the psychological distress, are noted.
(ii) Client is interviewed to find out irrational beliefs, which distorting the
(iii) The therapist encourages this by being accepting, empathic, genuine and warm to the client.
(iv) The therapist conveys by his/her words and behaviours that he/she is not judging the client and will continue to show the same positive feelings towards the client even if the client is rude or confides all the ‘wrong’ things that he/she may have done or thought about. This is the unconditional positive regard which the therapist has for the client.
The clinical formulation is an ongoing process. Formulations may require reformulations as clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy. Distorted perception of the antecedent event due to the irrational belief leads to the consequence, i.e., negative emotions and behaviours.
• Non-directive questioning: Process by which irrational beliefs are refuted by the therapist.
(i) Nature of questioning is gentle, without probing or being directive.
(ii) Make the client think deeper into his/her assumptions about life and problems.
• Client changes the irrational beliefs by making a change in his/her philosophy about life—rational belief system replaces the irrational belief system.
2. Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy:
(i) Childhood experiences provided by the family and society develop core schemes or systems, which include beliefs and action patterns in the individual.
(ii) Critical events in the individual’s life trigger the core, leading to the development of negative automatic thoughts.
(iii) Negative thoughts are persistent irrational thoughts characterised by cognitive distortions.
(iv) Dysfunctional Cognitive Structures: Patterns of thought which are general in nature but which distort the reality in a negative manner.
(v) Repeated occurrence of these thoughts leads to the development of feelings of anxiety and depression.
• The therapist uses questioning, which is gentle, non-threatening disputation of the client’s beliefs and thoughts.
• The questions make the client think in a direction opposite to that of the negative automatic thoughts whereby she/he gains insight into the nature of her/his dysfunctional schemas, and is able to alter her/his cognitive structures.
3. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT):
• Short, comprehensive, effective treatment for a wide range of psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, panic attacks and borderline personality.
• Adopts a biopsychosocial approach to the delineation of psychopathology.
• Combines cognitive therapy with behavioural techniques.
• Rationate—distress has its origins in the biological, psychological, and social realms.
• Addresses the biological (relaxation procedures), psychological (behaviour and cognitive therapy) and social (environmental manipulations) aspects.
D. Humanistic-Existential Therapy
Self-actualizationn is defined as an innate force that moves the person to become more complex, balanced, and integrated; integrated means a sense of whole, being a complete person.
1. Self-actualization requires free emotional expression:
(a) The family and society curb emotional expression, as it is feared that a free expression of emotions can harm society by unleashing destructive forces.
(b) When emotionally expression is curbed, destructive behaviour and negative emotions by thwarting the process of emotional integration.
2. Healing occurs when the client is able to perceive the obstacles to self-actualization in his/her life and is able to remove them.
3. Therapy creates a permissive, non-judgemental and accepting atmosphere in which the client’s emotions can be freely expressed.
4. The client has the freedom and responsibility to control his/her own behaviour; the therapist is merely a facilitator and guide. The chief aim of the therapy is to expand the client’s awareness.
1. Existential Therapy [Logotherapy (Victor Frankl)]:
• Treatment for the soul.
• Meaning making: Process of finding meaning even in life-threatening circumstances, the basis of which is a person’s quest for finding the spiritual truth of one’s existence.
• Spiritual Unconscious: The storehouse of love, aesthetic awareness and values of life.
• Existential Anxiety: Neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin (spiritual anxieties leading to meaninglessness).
• Goal: To help the patients find meaning and responsibility in their life irrespective of their life circumstances.
• The therapist emphasizes the unique nature of the patient’s life and is open (shares his/her feeltngs, values and own existence).
• Emphasis is on here and now, the therapist reminds the client about the immediacy of the present.
2. Client-centered Therapy (Carl Rogers):
• Introduced the concept of self and freedom and choice as the core of one’s being.
• Provides a warm relationship in which the client can reconnect with his/her disintegrated feelings.
• The therapist:
(i) Shows empathy—understands the client’s experience as if it were his/her own—sets up an emotional resonance between client and therapist.
(ii) Warmth—the client feels secure and can trust the therapist.
(iii) Has unconditional positive regard, i.e., total acceptance of the client as he/she is, indicates that the positive warmth of the therapist is not dependent on what the client reveals or does in the therapy sessions.
• Client feels secure enough to explore his/her feelings; therapist reflects the feelings of the client in a non-judgemental manner the reflection is achieved by rephrasing the statements of the client, i.e., seeking simple clarifications to enhance the meaning of the client’s statements.
3. Gestalt Therapy (Frederick and Laura Pearl):
• Goal: To increase an individual’s self-awareness and self -acceptance.
• Client is taught to recognize the bodily processes and the emotions that are being blocked out from awareness.
• Therapist encourages the client to act out fantasies about feelings and conflicts can also be used in group settings.
E. BIOMEDICAL THERAPY
Prescription of medicines is done by psychiatrists (qualified medical doctors who have specialized in the understanding, diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders). The nature of medicines used depends on the nature of the disorder:
(i) Anti-psychotic drugs—severe mental disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder).
(ii) Milder drugs—common mental disorders (generalized anxiety, reactive depression).
Cause side-effects which need to be understood and monitored—essential that medication is given under proper medical supervision.
ELECTRO-CONVULSIVE THERAPY (ECT)
(i) Mild electric shock given via electrodes to the brain of the patient to induce convulsions.
(ii) The shock is given by the psychiatrist only when necessary for the improvement of the patient.
(iii) Not a routine treatment and is given only when drugs are not effective
Factors Contributing to Healing:
1. Techniques adopted by the therapist and the implementation of the same with the client, e.g., CBT for an anxious client—relaxation procedures and cognitive restructuring contribute to the healing.
2. The therapeutic alliance, which is formed between the therapist and the patient/ client, has healing properties, because of the regular availability of the therapist, and the warmth and empathy provided by the therapist.
3. Catharsis: A process of emotional unburdening by a client when he/she is being interviewed in the initial sessions of therapy to understand the nature of the problem.
4. Non-specific Factors: These factors occur across different systems of psychotherapy and across different clients/patients and different therapists.
(i) Patient Variables (motivation for change, expectation of improvement).
(ii) Therapist Variables (positive nature, good mental health, absence of unresolved emotional conflicts).
Ethics in Psychotherapy:
1. Informed consent needs to be taken.
2. Confidentiality of the client should be maintained.
3. Alleviating personal distress should be the goal of all attempts of the therapist.
4. Integrity of the practitioner-client relationship is important.
5. Respect for human rights and dignity.
6. Professional competence and skills are essential.
F. ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES Yoga:
• An ancient Indian technique detailed in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras.
• Refers to only the asanas (body posture component) or to pranayama (breathing practices).
• Techniques enhance well-being, mood, attention, mental focus, and stress tolerance.
• Reduces the time to go to sleep and improves the quality of sleep.
• Proper training by a skilled teacher and 30-minute practice everyday maximises the benefits.
Meditation refers to the practice of focusing attention on breath or on an object or thought of a mantra.
A. Sudarshana Kriya Yoga (SKY)
(i) Rapid breathing techniques induce hyperventilation.
(ii) Beneficial, low risk, low cost.
(iii) Used as a public health intervention technique to alleviate PTSD in survivors of mass disasters.
(iv) Reduces depression (research conducted at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS).
(v) Reduces stress levels in substance abuse patients, e.g., alcoholics.
B. Kundalini Yoga
(i) Effective in treatment of mental disorders and OCD.
(ii) Combines prandyama (breathing techniques) with chanting of mantras.
C. Vipasana Meditation
(i) Mindfulness-based meditation; no fixed object or thought to hold to attention.
(ii) Person passively observes the various bodily sensations and thoughts that are passing through in his or her awareness.
(iii) Helps prevent repeated episodes of depression.
(vi) Helps patients process emotional stimuli better and prevents biases in the processing of these stimuli.
Rehabilitation of the Mentally 111:
• Aim: to empower the patient to become a productive member of society to the maximum extent possible.
• Many patients suffer from negative symptoms such as disinterest and lack of motivation to do work or to interact with people—rehabilitation is required to help such patients become self-sufficient.
• In rehabilitation, the patients are given:
(i) Occupational Therapy: teaches skills such as candle making, paper bag making and weaving to help them to form a work discipline
(ii) Social Skills Training: Develops interpersonal skills through role play, imitation and instruction; objective is to teach the patient to function in a social group.
(iii) Cognitive Retraining: Improves the basic cognitive functions of attention, memory and executive function.
(iv) Vocational Therapy: Once the patient improves sufficiently, gains skills necessary to undertake productive employment.
WORDS THAT MATTER
• Alternative Therapy: Alternative treatment possibilities to the conventional during treatment or Psychotherapy, e.g. yoga, Meditation etc.
• Behaviour Therapy: Therapy based on the principles of behaviouristic learning theories in order to change the maladaptive behaviour.
• Biomedical Therapy: Refer to medicines which are prescribed to treat Psychological disorders.
• Client-centered (Rogerian) Therapy: The therapeutic approach developed by Carl Rogers in which therapist helps clients to clarify their true feeling and come to value who they are.
• Cognitive Therapies: Forms of therapy focused on changing distorted and maladaptive patterns of thought.
• Counselling: A board name for a wide variety of procedures for helping individuals achieve adjustments, such as the giving of advice, therapeutic discussion, the administration and interpretation of tests, and vocational assistance.
• Counselling Interview: An interview whose purpose is counselling or providing guidance in the area of personality, vocational choice, etc.
• Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT): Commonly called ‘shock treatment’. A biological treatment for unipolar depression in which electrodes attached to a patient’s head send an electric current through the brain, causing a convulsion. It is effective in the treatment of cases of several depression that fail to respond to drug therapy.
• Empathy: Reacting to another’s feelings with an emotion response that is similar to the other’s feeling.
• Free Association: A psychodynamic technique in which the patient describes verbally any thought, feeling or image that comes to mind, even if it seems unimportant.
• Gestalt Therapy: An approach to therapy that attempts to integrate a client’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour into a unified whole.
• Humanistic Therapy: A therapy in which the underlying assumption is that people have control over their behaviour, can make choices about their lives, and are essentially responsible for solving their own problems.
• Modelling: A process of learning in which an individual acquires responses by observing and imitating others.
• Psychodynamic Therapy: First suggested by Frend. Therapy based on the premise that the primary sources of abnormal behaviour are unresolved past conflicts and the possibility that unacceptable unconscious impulses will enter consciousness.
• Psychotherapy: The use of any psychological technique in the treatment of mental/ psychological disorder or maladjustment.
• Rational Emotive Therapy (RET): A therapeutic system developed by Albert Ellis. It seeks to replace irrational problem-provoking outlooks with more realistic ones.
• Rehabilitation: Restoring an individual to normal or a satisfactory a state as possible, following an illness, criminal episode, etc.
• Resistance: In psychoanalysis, attempts by the patient to block treatment.
• Self-actualisation: A- state of self-fulfillment in which people realise their highest potential in their own unique way.
• Systematic Desensitisation: A form of behavioural therapy in which phobic client learns to induce a relaxed state and then exposed to stimuli that elicit fear or phobia.
• Therapeutic Alliance: The special relationship between the client and the therapist; contractual nature of the relationship and limited duration of the therapy are its two major components.
• Transference: Strong positive or negative feelings toward the therapist on the part of individual undergoing psychoanalysis.
• Unconditional Positive Regard: An attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what the other person says or does.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation

• Harappan Civilisation is also known as Indus Valley Civilisation. It is the oldest Civilisation of India.
• There is no consensus about the chronology of the Harappan Civilisation.
• Various scholars have given different dates about this period.
• According to Sir John Marshall, “this civilisation flourished between 3250 and 2750 BCE”.
• It was Daya Ram Sahni, who first discovered the sites of Harappan in 1921.
• The main centres of this civilisation are in Pakistan. The same famous sites of this civilisation (now in Pakistan) are Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro.
• The main centre where this Civilisation flourished in India are Kalibangan, Sangol, Pengplor, Lothal, Dholavira and Banawali.
• The urban planning of this civilisation was very magnificent. The houses were built in a systematic manner. Roads were wide and cut each other at right angle.
• The people of Indus Valley Civilisation had also made best planning for the drainage of rainwater and dirty water.
• The caste system was not present in the society. All the people lived together with mutual love and understanding.% The women held a high position or rank in the society.
• They were fond of fashion. The economic life the people was very prosperous.
• The main occupations of the people were the agriculture and domestication of animals.
• Trade was well developed. Both maternal and external trade was carried out.
• The people worshipped many gods and goddesses. They worshipped mother goddesses, Lord Shiva, animal, birds, trees and the Sun.
• They knew arts and crafts. They knew the art of making beautiful sculptures, toys, pottery, ornaments, etc. They were skilled in the production of seals.
• The languages used by them on the seals is still to be deciphered. If one is able to decipher their script inscribed on the seals, it will throw a flood of the light on the various aspects of the Harappan Civilisation.
• The main sources of our information of Harappan Civilisation is archaeological materials. The excavation carried out at Indus sites tries to reconstruct the history of this civilisation.
• During the excavation of Indus sites, many tools, pottery, seals, household objects, etc. have excavated.
• All these excavated materials are deeply examined by the archaeologists.
• Many historians like Cunningham, R.E.M. Wheeler, John Marshall and G.F.
• Dates have played a valuable role in reconstructing the history of the ancient past including the Indus Valley Civilisation sites.
• Many Indian archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni, S.R. Rao, R.S. Bisht and B.K. Thapar have played a great role in excavations of the Indus sites.
• Indus Valley Civilisation is also known as Bronze Age Civilisation, because people used bronze extensively for making their pottery, figure lines and ornaments.
• Almost 1900 BCE, these were explicit signs about the decline of this civilisation.
• By this time the two most important cities of Indus Valley-Mohenjodaro and Harappa had been completely declined.
• Around 1200 BCE, this civilisation had completely vanished. Epidemic, Aryan Invasion, change in the course of the river Indus, excessive floods, earthquake, etc. may be the main reasons for the decline of this civilisation.

• Seal: It generally contained animal motifs and signs from a script.
• Hoards: Generally metal objects and jewellery kept by people inside containers.
• Stratigraphy: The study of historical layers.
• Motif: Name of animal, used by the Harappans on seals to mark some sort of trademark.
• Proto-Shiva: A seal that shows a figure seated in a yogic posture surrounded by animals has been designated as Proto-Shiva, an early form of one of the deities of Hinduism.
• Lingas: The polished stones were often worshipped as symbols of the God Shiva.
• Shamans: These were the groups of men and women who claimed to have magical and healing powers and ability to communicate with the other world.
• Art: It referred to painting, sculpture, pottery and seal making.
• Culture: Term used for a group of objects, distinct in style, found specifically within a geographical area and period of time.
• Pictographs: Picture-like signs to represent letters or words.
• The Great Bath: Best known building in Mohenjodaro for bath.
• Granaries: Buildings where grains were stored.

Time Line:

• 1862  Alexander Cunningham appointed as the first Director General of Archaeological Survey of India.
• 1921  D.R. Sahni discovered Harappa.
• 1992  R.D. Banneijee discovered Mohenjodaro
• 1924  Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation.
• 1953  Kalibangan was excavated by A. Ghosh.
• 1955  S.R. Rao discovered Lothal.
• 1968  Sanghal was discovered by S.S. Talwar and R.S. Bisht.

Class 12 History Notes

Psychological Disorders –  CBSE Notes for Class 12 Psychology

FACTS THAT MATTER
Concept of Abnormality and Psychological disorders:
The term ‘abnormal’ with its prefix ab (away from), generally signify the deviance or variation from the normal.
Anything not normal must, therefore, be abnormal. But acquiring insight into what we consider normal, expected behaviour is difficult enough, understanding human behaviour beyond the normal range is quite challenging.
Normal and abnormal behaviour are subjective terms. These terms are qualitative and matter of degree because drawing a sharp line between then is not possible.
The study of Psychopathology is a search for why people behave, think and feel in unexpected, sometimes bizzare and typically self defeating ways.
Several characteristics are considered in evaluating whether a behaviour is abnormal: violation of social norms, personal distress, disability or dysfunction, dangerous behaviour (4Ds), unexpectedness and statistical infrequency. Each characteristics tells some thing about what can be considered abnormal, but conception change with time, making it impossible to offer a simple definition that captures abnormality in its totality.
Classification of Psychological factors: Classification refers to a list of categories of specific Psychological disorders grouped into various classes on the basis of some shared characteristics.
Main Classification.
ICD-10: Developed by WHO. This is official classification in India.
The classification is based op symptoms under one broad heading i.e. Mental disorders. DSMIV: Developed by APA. It is multi-axial. It is very comprehensive because classification is based on biological Psychological social factors, cause and prognosis of disorders.
Importance: These classification provide standard vocabulary standard vocabulary through which professionals universally can converse.
It also helps in understanding the cause and diagnosis of mental disorders.
Recurring Theories to Study Abnormal Behaviour:
1. Ancient theory suggests some people possessed by supernatural and magical forces such as evil spirits. Exorcism (removing the evil residing in the individual through prayer) is still commonly used. Shaman or medicine man has contact with supernatural forces, medium of communication between human and spirits.
2. Biological/Organic approach links defective biological processes to maladaptive behaviour.
3. According to psychological approach problems caused by inadequacies in the way an individual thinks, feels and perceives.
Historical Background:
(a) Ancient Greek philosophers (Hippocrates, Socrates, Plato) developed organismic approach—viewed disturbed behaviour arising out of conflicts between emotion and reason.
Galen—temperament affected by imbalance in four humours, similar to tridoshas.
(b) Middle ages, superstition and demonology—people with mental problems, were associated to demons.
St. Augustine wrote about feelings, mental anguish and conflict—laid groundwork for modem psychodynamic theories.
(c) Renaissance Period—increased humanism and curiosity about behaviour.
Johann Weyer—disturbed interpersonal relationships as cause of psychic disorders, mentally disturbed required medical not theological treatment.
(d) Age of Reason and Enlightenment (17th /18th centuries)- growth of scientific method replaced faith and dogma, contributed to Reform movement
Increased compassion for those suffering—reform of asylums, deinstitutionalization, emphasized community care.
(e) Recent years—convergence of approaches, resulted in interactional biopsycho-social approach.
Factors Underlying Abnormal Behaviour
I. Biological Factors (faulty genes, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition) affect normal development and functioning—behaviour has a biochemical or physiological basis. Abnormal activity by neuro-transmitters (transmission of messages between neurons) leads to specific psychological disorders.
(i) Anxiety disorders (Low activity of gamma amino butyric acid (GABA).
(ii) Depression (Low activity of serotonin).
(iii) Schizophrenia (excess activity of dopamine).
Scientific evidence links genetic factors to depression, anxiety, mood disorders, schizophrenia, mental retardation—unable to identify the specific genes, no single gene responsible for a particular behaviour—cannot alone account for a mental disorder.
II. Psychological and interpersonal factors affect abnormal behaviour.
• Maternal deprivation (separation from mother, lack of warmth in early years).
• Faulty parent-child relationships (rejection, overprotection, over-permissiveness, faulty discipline)
• Maladaptive family structures (inadequate or disturbed family).
• Severe stress.
Psychological Models:
1. Psychodynamic Model (Freud):
(i) Behaviour determined by unconscious psychological forces—abnormal symptoms, the result of conflicts between these internal, dynamic forces.
(ii) Three central forces shape personality—instinctual needs, drives and impulses (Id), rational thinking (ego) and moral standards (super go).
(iii) Abnormal behaviour—a symbolic expression of unconscious mental conflicts traced to early childhood or infancy.
2. Behavioural Model:
(i) Behaviours are learned through classic (temporal association between two events), operant (behaviour followed by a reward), conditioning and social (imitating other’s behaviour) learning.
(ii) Psychological disorders—the result of learning maladaptive ways of behaving.
3. Cognitive Model:
(i) Abnormal functioning results from cognitive problems:
— Irrational and inaccurate assumptions and attitudes.
— Thinking in illogical ways, making over-generalisations (broad, negative conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event).
4. Humanistic-Existential Model:
(i) Human beings born with a natural tendency to self-actualise, i.e., fulfil the potential for growth.
(ii) Existentialists believe that individuals from birth have total freedom to give meaning of existence—those who shirk from responsibility live empty, inauthentic, dysfunctional lives.
WORDS THAT MATTER
• Abnormal Psychology: Serenities study of abnormal behaviour. By using scientific Techniques, Psychology attempts to describe, explain and predict abnormal behaviour.
• Anti-Social Behaviour: refers to any behaviour that is considered harmful or disruptive within a group or society. Aspects of behaviour such as aggression or deserimination would fall into this category.
• Anorexia nervosa: Disorder involving severe loss of body weight, accompanied by an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming ‘fat’.
• Anxiety: A state of psychic distress characterized by fear, apprehension, and physiological arousal.
• Anxiety Disorders: Disorders in which anxiety is a central symptom. The disorder is characterized by feelings of vulnerability, apprehension, or fear.
• Autism: Pervasive developmental disorder beginning in infancy and involving a wide range of abnormalities, including deficits in language, perceptual, and motor development, defective reality testing, and social withdrawal.
• Delusions: Irrational beliefs that are held despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary.
• De-institutionalisation: Movement whose purpose is to remove from care-giving institution such as large mental hospitals all those patients who do not present a clear danger to others or to themselves and to provide treatment sheltered living conditions for them in the community.
• Depersonalization Disorder: Dissociative disorder in which there is a loss of the sense of self.
• Diathesis-stress Model: A view that the interaction of factors such as biological predisposition combined with life stress may cause a specific disorder.
• Dissociation: A split in consciousness whereby certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviour operate independently from others.
• Exorcism: Religiously inspired treatment procedure designed to drive out evil spirits or forces from a ‘possessed’ person.
• Eating disorders: A term which refers to a serious disruption of the eating habits or the appetite. The main types of eating disorders are Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa and Binge eating.
• Genetics: A branch of Biology referring or relating to genes. Inherited genes are basic unit of inheritance.
• Hallucination: A false perception which has a compulsive sense of the reality of objects although relevant and adequate stimuli for such perception is lacking. It is an abnormal phenomenon.
• Hypochondriasis: A psychological disorder in which the individual is dominated by preoccupation with bodily processes and fear of presumed diseases despite reassurance from doctor that no physical illness exists.
• Hyperactivity: Condition characterised by overactive, poorly controlled behaviour and lack of concentration.
• Main symptom of ADHD: Severe and frequent problems of either or both attention to tasks or hyperactive and impulsive behaviour.
• Mental retardation: Subnormal intellectual functioning associated with impairment in adaptive behaviour and identified at an early age.
• Mood Disorder: Disorder affecting one’s emotional state, including depression and bipolar disorder.
• Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that carry message across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neurone.
• Norms: A generalised expectation shared by most members of a group or culture that underlies views of what is appropriate within that group.
In terms of Psychological testing norms are standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test. This is the criteria to compare or typical score of an average group.
• Obsessive-compulsive Disorder: A disorder characterised by obsession or compulsions.
• Phobia: A strong, persistent. And irrational fear of some specific object or situation that presents little or no actual danger to a person.
• Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Patterns of symptoms involving anxiety reactions, tension, nightmares, and depression following a disaster such as an earthquake or a flood.
• Schizophrenia: A group of psychotic reactions characterised by the breakdown of integrated personality functioning, withdrawal from reality, emotion blunting and distortion, and disturbances in thought and behaviour.
• Somatoform disorder: Condition involving physical complaints or disabilities occurring in the absence of any identifiable organic cause.
• Substance Abuse: The use of any drug or chemical to modify mood or behaviour that results in impairment.
• Syndrome: Group or pattern of symptoms that occur together in a disorder and represent the typical picture of the disorder

CBSE NotesCBSE Notes PsychologyNCERT Solutions Psychology