Bhagya

Social Influence And Group Processes –  CBSE Notes for Class 12 Psychology

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FACTS THAT MATTER
NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS
Group: Organised system of two or more people who interact and are interdependent, have common motives, have a set of role relationships among members and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.
Features:
1. Collection of people with common goals and motives.
2. Two or more people: perceive themselves as belonging to the group—each group is unique.
3. Members are interdependent.
4. Members interact with each other directly or indirectly.
5. Members satisfy needs through joint association—influence each other.
6. Set of norms and roles—specific functions for each member, adhere to norms on how one must behave, expected behaviour, etc.
Advantages:
We are simultaneously members of different groups; different groups satisfy different needs but could create pressures due to competing demands and expectations.
1. Security: Groups reduce insecurity
• being with people—sense of comfort/protection.
• people feel stronger—less vulnerable to threats.
2. Status: Recognised group gives feeling of power and importance.
3. Self-esteem: Feeling of self-worth and positive social identity.
• member of prestigious group enhances* self-concept.
4. Goal Achievement: Group helps to attain some goals which can’t be attained alone (power in the majority).
5. Provides Knowledge and Information: Broadens views, helps supplement information.
6. Satisfaction of Psychological and Social Needs: Like sense of belongingness—giving and receiving attention, love and power.
Group Formation:
Some form of contact and interaction between people is needed.
1. Proximity: Closeness and repeated interactions with the same people (get to know their interests, attitudes and background).
2. Similarity: People prefer consistency—consistent relationship (reinforces and validates opinions and values; feel we’re right).
3. Common Motives and Goals: Groups facilitate goal attainment.
Stages of group formation (Tuck man):
1. Forming: Member’s first meet—there is uncertainty about group and goal and how it will be achieved. they try to get to know each other—there is excitement and apprehension.
2. Storming: Intra-group conflict—about how the goal is to be achieved, who’s the leader and who will perform what task (hierarchy of leadership and how to achieve goal is developed.
3. Norming: Develop norms related to group behaviour (development of a positive group identity).
4. Performing: Structure of the group has evolved and is accepted (towards goal achievement); at this is the last stage of group development.
5. Adjourning: Once the function is over the group may be disbanded.
Notes:
— Groups do not always proceed in a systematic manner.
— Stages could even take place simultaneously.
— Groups can go back and forth between stages or skip a few stages.
Group Structure: Over time there are regularities in distribution of tasks, responsibilities assigned to members and status of members.
Elements:
1. Roles: Socially defined expectation that individuals in given situations are expected to fulfil, i.e., typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context.
(i) Role Expectations: Behaviour expected of someone in a particular role.
2. Norms (unspoken rules): Expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon and enforced by group members.
3. Status: Relative social position given to group members by others.
(i) Ascribed (given due to one’s seniority) or achieved (because of expertise or hard work).
(ii) Members of a group—enjoy status, and want to be members of prestigious groups.
(iii) Within groups, different members have different prestige and status.
4. Cohesiveness: Togetherness, binding or mutual attraction among members
(i) More Cohesiveness: Members start thinking, feeling and acting as a social unit (no isolated individuals); there is an increased desire to remain in group (we feeling- sense of belongingness).
(iii) Extreme cohesiveness leads to group think and is negative.
Types of Groups:
Primary Group:
Pre-existing formation that are usually given to a person. People usually remain a part of it through their lifetime.
Includes face-to-face interaction and close physical proximity. Member share warm, emotional bonds.
Central to person’s functioning; major role in developing values and ideals.
Boundaries are less permeable—can’t choose membership, join or leave easily.
Example: Family, religion, caste.
Secondary Group:
Groups which individuals join by choice.
Relationships among members are more impersonal, indirect and less frequent.
These may or may not be short-lived.
It is easy to leave and join another group.
Example: Political party.
Formal Group:
Functions, based to be performed are explicitly stated.
Formation based on specific rules or laws and members have defined roles. Set of norms help establish order.
Example: Office, university.
Informal Group:
Roles of each member not so definite and specified. Close relationship among members exist.
Formation not based on rules and laws.
Example: peer group.
In group:
One’s own group—‘we’ (e.g., India).
Members in the group—similar, viewed favourably, have desired traits.
Out group:
Another group—‘they’ (e.g., Pakistan).
Member of out-group—viewed
differently, negatively in comparison to in group.
Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour:
1. Social Loafing: This is the reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task.
— Individual performing an activity with the others as part of a larger group.
— Individuals work less hard in a group than alone.
— Don’t know much effort each one is putting in.
— Presence of others leads to arousal; motivates individuals to enhance their performance (only when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated).
Causes of Social Loafing:
(a) Members feel less responsible for the overall task and thus exert less effort.
(b) Performance of the group isn’t compared with other groups.
(c) Motivation decreases as contributions are not individually evaluated.
(d) No/improper co-ordination between members.
(e) Belonging to the same group is not important for members (it is only aggregate of individuals).
Can be reduced by:
(a) Making effort of each person identifiable.
(b) Increasing pressure to work hard—make members committed, motivated.
(c) Increase apparent importance and value of task.
(d) Make them feel their Individual contribution is important.
(e) Strengthen group cohesiveness—increase motivation for successful group outcome.
2. Group Polarisation: Groups are likely to take more extreme decisions than individuals would take alone
• strengthening of group’s initial position because of groups interaction.
• dangerous repercussions—groups may take extreme position (very weak to very strong decisions).
Causes of group Polarization:
(a) In the company of like-minded people, you’re likely to hear newer arguments favouring your view-points.
(b) Bandwagon effect—when you find others sharing your view-point, you feel your view is validated by the public.
(c) When people have similar views as you, you’re likely to perceive them as in-group (start identifying with them, show conformity—views become strengthened).
Social Influences: Those processes whereby our attitudes and behaviours are influences by the real or imagined presence of other people.
Kelman.
Identification: Influence process based on agreement or identity seeking. Internalisation: Process based on information seeking.
1. Conformity:
— Most indirect form of social influence.
— Tendency to follow norms is natural and spontaneous (norms are unwritten informal rules: provide information about what is expected from people in a situation; allows the group of function smoothly).
— People feel uncomfortable if they’re ‘different’ (could lead to dislike/disapproval or some form of social punishment) (deviants/non-conformists).
— Following norms is the easiest way to avoid disapproval.
— Norms reflect the views and beliefs of the majority (feel majority is likely to be right). — Experiments on conformity by Sherif (Autokinetic effect) and Asch (Asch technique)
(condition determining the extent of conformity—degrees of conformity determined by situation-specific factors).
Determinants of Conformity:
(a) Size of Group: More conformity when group is small.
(b) Size of Minority: Larger the minority, lesser the conformity (more is the deviance).
(c) Nature of the Task: more conformity when there are objective questions.
(d) Public/Private Expression of Behaviour: More conformity in public and less conformity in private expression.
(e) Personality: Conforming personality—tendency to change behaviour according to what others do (others are independent, don’t look for norms to decide how to behave in a situation—highly intelligent people are confident).
Conformity occurs because of:
(a) Informational influence (that results from accepting evidence, not reality. Rational conformity- learn through observing other’s actions)
(b) Normative influence (based on desire to be accepted and admired—conform because deviation could lead to rejection/non-acceptance. Majority determines final decision but at times ifTniriority is firm and uncompromising it doubts on the majority’s minds).
2. Compliance: Extreme condition forcing the person to accept influence (of a significant other) and behave in a particular way in response to a request from another person/group even in the absence of a norm. Why do we comply—easier way out of the situation more polite.
Factors used to make others comply:
(i) ‘Foot in the Door’ Technique: Being by making small request that one can’t refuse move on to bigger ones-once you comply with the first request, feel uncomfortable refusing the second one.
(ii) ‘Deadline* Technique: A ‘last date’ is announced until an offer is available—make people hurry so they can’t miss the opportunity. More (the one actually required), usually granted.
(iii) ‘Door in the Face Technique: Being with a large request and when this is refused move onto making a smaller request (the one actually required), usually granted.
3. Obedience
— Response to a person in authority.
— Direct and explicit form of social influence (someone has requested and you comply).
— If disobeyed, one is likely to get punished from people in authority; thus, one to obey as people in authority have effective means for enforcing order.
— Milgram’s experiment: Even ordinary people are willing to harm innocent people if ordered by someone in authority.
Why do people obey (after knowing the effects)?
(a) Feel they are not responsible for their own action and that they are simply carrying out orders from an authority.
(b) Authority is powerful and possesses symbol of status, and thus difficult to resist.
(c) Authority increases commands from lesser to greater levels (initial obedience binds followers for commitment and once you obey small orders you start obeying bigger orders as you feel committed to the authority).
(d) Events move at such a fast speed that there is no time to think, one just obeys orders, e.g., riots
Co-operation and Competition:
Co-operation:
When groups work together to achieve shared goals.
No individual rewards. Only group rewards exist.
Co-operative goals—each attains his/ her goal only if other members attain their.
There is respect for one another’s ideas and members are more friendly. There is more co-ordination.
Competition:
When group-members try to maximize their own benefits.
They work for self-interest and individual reward.
Competitive goals—each gets his/her goal only if others don’t attain their.
Leads to conflict and disharmony. More group cohesion and solidarity within ones group.
Determinants of Co-operation and Competition:
(a) Reward Structure:
Co-operative reward structure promotes interdependence; reward possible only if all contribute.
Competitive reward structure—only one gets the award.
(b) Interpersonal Communication: Good interpersonal communication increases co-operation (facilitates interaction, discussion, convinces each other and increases learning about each other).
(c) Reciprocity: People feel obligated to return the behaviour they get (initial co¬operation leads to increased co-operation and initial competitiveness leads to competition).
Social Identity: Aspect of our self-concept which is based on our group membership (tells us about one’s position in the larger social contact and helps us located ourselves in society)
— derives from groups we are a part of.
— includes personal attributes and attributes we share with others.
— acquires certain attributes from interaction with others in society.
— identification with social groups is important for self-concept.
— provides members with a shared set of values, beliefs and goal about ourselves and others
— in-group—group with which you identify yourself (start showing favouritism towards it. Rate it above out-group and devaluate out group—basis of intergroup conflicts).
Intergroup Conflicts:
Conflict: This is process in which either an individual or a group perceives others as having opposing interest and both try to contradict each other (‘we’ and ‘they’ feeling-are strong)
— belief that ‘others’ will protect only its own interests.
— both try to exert power on one another.
— when groups are more aggressive than individuals, it leads to escalation of conflict.
— costly human price in conflicts.
Causes:
(a) Lack of communication or Faulty Communication: It leads to suspicion and lack of trust.
(b) Relative Deprivation: Compare oneself to members of the other group:
— don’t have what you desire: others have it.
— not doing well in comparison to others: deprivation depression.
(c) Belief that one is better than the other: What one partly believes should be done (if it does not happen—then members accuse one another and small differences are magnified. This leads to increased conflict).
(d) Desire for Retaliation: For harm done in the past.
(e) No Respect for Others Norms: Feeling that other group does not respect norms of my group and violates them because of malevolent intent.
(f) Biased Perception: Feeling of ‘the/ and ‘we’.
(g) People are more aggressive and competitive in groups than on their own (due to competition over scarce resources).
(h) Perceived Inequity: Equity—distribution of rewards in proportion to individual’s contributions (you feel irritated and exploited if you contribute more and are rewarded less).
Notes:
— Conflicts between groups leads to series of social and cognitive processes—hardens the stand of each side (ingroup polarization).
— Coalition of like-minded parties increases apprehension. .
— Misperceptions and biased interpretations increase conflicts.
Murphy—Conflicts begin in the minds of men.
Structural Level: Increase in poverty rates, inequality, limited political and social opportunity, economic and social stratification.
Group Level: Social identity, unequal power relations, resources.
Individual Level: Beliefs, biased attitudes, personality characteristics (there is progression along a continuum of violence—butterfly effect).
Consequences (Deutsch):
(a) Communication becomes poor between groups (lack of trust—breakdown in communication leads to suspicion).
(b) Groups start magnifying their differences and perceive their behaviour as fair and others as unfair.
(c) Each side tries to increase its own power and legitimacy, thus the conflict shifts from smaller to larger ones.
(d) Once conflict starts, other factors lead to escalation of conflict (in-group opinion is hardened, out-group is threatened and when other parties choose sides, the conflict is further escalated).
Conflict Resolution Strategies:
1. Introduction of Superordinate Goals: Superordinate goals reduce conflict and are mutually beneficial to both sides, thus sides work co-operatively.
2. Altering Perceptions: Through persuasion, educational and media appeal portrayal of groups differently. Also promoting empathy for others should be taught.
3. Increasing Intergroup Contact: By involving groups on neutral grounds through community projects and events they become more appreciative of each other’s stand. Contacts need to be maintained, supported over a period of time to be successful.
4. Redrawing Group Boundaries: Group boundaries create condition where boundaries are redefined; perceive themselves as belonging to a common group.
5. Negotiations: Reciprocal communication so as to reach an agreement in situation where there is a conflict.
(i) Conflict can be resolved through negotiations and third party interventions.
(ii) Groups try finding mutually acceptable solutions.
(iii) When negotiation doesn’t work then mediation (both parties reach a voluntary agreement and focus discussions on relevant issues) or arbitration (third party has the authority to give a decision after hearing both parties) by a is used.
6. Structural Solutions: Redistributing societal resources according to principles based on justice.
Principles of justice—equality (allocating equally to everyone), need (allocating on the basis of one’s need) and equity (allocating on the basis of contribution).
7. Respect for other Group’s Norms: To respect and be sensitive to the strong norms of various social and ethnic groups, especially in India where many communal riots have occurred due to insensitivity of one religious group towards another.
Group think (Irving Janis)
(i) Cohesion can lead to a tendency to make irrational and uncritical decision—group allows -its concerns for unanimity.
(ii) Appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement—each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision, no one expresses dissenting opinion (undermine cohesion of group, makes him/her unpopular).
(iii) Exaggerated sense of its own power, ignores real world cues, out of touch with reality— occurs in socially homogenous, cohesive, isolated, do not consider alternatives, decision have high cost.
(iv) Prevention-encouraging and rewarding critical thinking and disagreement, encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action, inviting outside experts to evaluate group decision, encouraging seeking feedback from trusted others.
WORDS THAT MATTER
• Authority: The right inherent in a position (e.g., managerial) to give orders and to except the orders to be obeyed.
• Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause group-members to remain in the group.
• Competition: Mutual striving between two individuals or groups for the same objective.
• Compliance: A form of social influence in which one er more persons, not holding authority, accept direct requests from one or more others.
• Conformity: A type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or behaviours in order to adhere to existing social norms.
• Group: Two or more persons who interact with one another, have shared goals, are interdependent, and consider themselves as members of group.
• Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the group members desire to reach unanimous agreement overrides the wish to adopt proper, rational, decision-making procedures; an example of group polarisation.
• In-group: The social group to which an individual perceives himself or herself as belonging (‘us’). The group with which one identifies. The other groups are out-groups.
• Obedience: Confirming behaviour in reaction to the commands of others.
• Out-group: Any group of which an individual is not a member.
• Primary Group: Group in which each member is personally known to each of the other members, and in which the members, at least on occasion, meet face-to-face.
• Proximity: The principle of Gestalt psychology that stimuli close together tend to be perceived as a group.
• Roles: An important concept in social psychology which refers to the behaviour expected of an individual in accordance with the position he/she holds in a particular society.
• Social Influence: The process by which the actions of an individual or group affect the behaviours of others.
• Social Inhibition: Social restraint on conduct.
• Social Loafing: In a group, each additional individual puts in less effort, thinking that others will be putting in their effort.
• Social Support: Information from other people that one is loved and cared for, esteemed and valued, and part of a network of communication and mutual obligation.
• Status: Social rank within a group.
• Structure: The enduring form and composition of a complex system or phenomenon. Contrast with function, which is a process of a relatively brief duration, arising out of structure.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts

• From 8th-18th century Bhakti Movement, Islam and Sufi movement played an important role in the history of medieval India.
• The Alvars and the Nayanars were considered as the founder of Bhakti movement in southern India.
• The Alvars were the devotees of Lord Vishnu, while the Nayanars followed Shaivism.
• Both Alvars and Nayanar strongly criticised the social and religious malpractices prevalent in the society.
• Two women saints-Andal of Alvars and Karaikkal of Ammaiyar of Nayanars played a valuable role in giving a new direction to the society.
• The Cholas, Pallavas, and Chalukya patronised both Alvar and Nayanar cult.
• Basavanna founded Virashaivas or Lingayats in Karnataka and played a valuable role in the development of his cult.
• Islam was founded by prophet Muhammad in 7th century in Azabia.
• The pillars of Islam are;
  • Reutors Raima
  • Namaz
  • Ranja
  • Zakat
  • Hajj
• The holy book of Islam is Quran Shariff. It has been written in Arabic and has 114 chapters.
• According to Muslim tradition Quran is the compilation of those message which god (Allah) had sent to prophet Muhammad between 610-632 at Mecca and Madina through his envoy Archangel Jibris.
• During Medieval period in India Sufism emerged as a powerful movement.Sufis were so called because of the purity (safa) of their hearts. They are in the first queue before god. Some others are of
• the views that Sufi’s were called so because of their habit of wearing wool (suf).
• Unity in God, complete self-surrender, charity, Ibadat, love for mankinds, etc. are the main teaching of Sufism.
• Sufi silsilas begin to emerge in Islamic world.
• The important silsilas of Islam are;
  • The Chishti Silsila
  • The Suhrawardi Silsila
  • The Qadiri Silsila
  • The Naqshbandi Silsila
• Data Gunj Bakhsh, Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, Shaikh Qutbuddin. Bakhtiyar Kaki, Fariduddin Gunj-i Shakar, and Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya are some of the prominent Sufi Shaikhs in India.
• Ziyarat meant pilgrimage to the tombs of sufi saints. Its main objective was to seek the spiritual grace from the Sufi.
• Music and dance are an important part of Ziyarat.
• The Sufis believed that music and dance evoke divine ecstasy in human heart.
• The religious gathering of Sufism is known as Sama.
• The qual is an Arabic word which meant ‘saying’. It was sung at opening or closing of the qawwals.
• The devotional worship of god with the ultimate objective of attaining moksha is called Bhakti. The word Bhakti was derived from the root ‘Bhaj’ meaning to adore.
• The Bhaktis who were against the worship of avatars and idol worship are known as saints. Kabir, Guru Nanak Dev ji and successor of Guru Nanak Dev ji are the prominent Bhakti Saints.
• The impact of the Bhakti movement on the Indian Society was significant and far-reaching.

A variety of religious structures like stupas, monastries, temples are found in the sub-continent by the mid-first millennium CE. Textual resources like the Puranas, music in different regional languages, hagiographies of saints were also found. These sources provide us with insight into a dynamic and diverse scenario.

Various Religious Beliefs and Practices:

• A wide range of Gods and Goddesses were found in sculpture as well as in texts. Puranic texts were composed and complied in simple Sanskrit language which could be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally deprived of vedic learning. Many beliefs and practices were shaped through continuous mingling of Puranic traditions with local traditions. Jagannatha cult of Odisha was the local deity made of wood by local tribal specialists and recognised as a form of Vishnu.
• The local deities were often incorporated within the Puranic framework, by providing them with an identity as wife of the principal deities. For e.g. they were equated with Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, or Parvati, wife of Shiva. Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of sub-continent. It influenced Shaivism as well as Buddhism.
• The principal deities of the Vedic pantheon Agni, Indra and Soma were rarely visible in textual or visual representations. All other religious beliefs, e.g. Buddhism, Jainism, Tantric Practices ignored the authority of the vedas. The singing and chanting of devotional composition became a mode of worship particularly true for the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects.

Early Traditions of Bhakti:

• Historians classified bhakti traditions into two broad categories i.e. Nirguna (without attributes) and Saguna (with attributes).
• In the sixth century, Bhakti movements were led by Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva). They travelled place to place singing Tamil devotional songs. During their travels, the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines and later large temples were built at these places.
• Historians suggested that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system. Nalayira Divyaprabandham composed by the Alvars was described as the Tamil Veda.
• Women devotees like Andal, Karaikkal Ammariyar composed devotional music which posed a challenge to patriarchal norms. Under the patronage of the Chola rulers, large and magnificent temples were constructed at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangai Kondacholapuram.
• Tamil Shaiva hymns were sung in the temples under royal patronage.

The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka:

• A new movement emerged in Karnataka led by a Brahmana named Basavanna in the 12th century’.
• His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (Wearers of Lingas). Lingayats continue to be an important community in the region to date.
• The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste, pollution, theory of rebirth etc and encouraged post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
• Our understanding of the Virashaiva tradlition is derived from Vachanas (literally sayings) composed in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.

The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka:

• A new movement emerged in Karnataka led by a Brahmana named Basavanna in the 12th century’.
• His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (Wearers of Lingas). Lingayats continue to be an important community in the region to date.
• The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste, pollution, theory of rebirth etc and encouraged post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
• Our understanding of the Virashaiva tradlition is derived from Vachanas (literally sayings) composed in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.

Emergence of Islamic Traditions:

• In the 13th century, Turk and Afghans invaded India and established the Delhi Sultanate.
• Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided by the Ulama and followed the rules of Shari’a.
• Non-Muslims had to pay a tax called Jizya and gained the right to be protected by Muslim rulers.
• Several Mughal rulers including Akbar and Aurangzeb gave land endowments and granted tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious institutions.
• All those who adopted Islam accepted the five pillars of the faith that are:
  • There is one God, Allah, and prophet Muhammad is his messenger.
  • offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat).
  • Giving alms (Zakat).
  • Fasting during the month of Ramzan (Sawm).
  • Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).
• People were occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they came. Migrant communities often termed as Mlechchha meant that they did not observe the norms of caste, society and spoke languages that were not derived from Sanskrit.

The Growth of Sufism:

• In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious minded people called Sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the caliphate.
• Sufis were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Quran and sought an interpretation of it on the basis of their personal experience.
• By the 11th century, Sufism evolved into a well developed movement.
• The suits began to organise communities around the hospice or Khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as Shaikh, Pir or Murshid. He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (Khalifa).
• Sufi Silsila means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad.
• When Shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became the centre of devotion for his followers and practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on death anniversary or urs (or marriage, signifying the union of his soul with God) started. The cult of Shaikh transformed into wali.

The Chishtis in the Sub-continent:

• The Chishtis were the most important group of Sufis who migrated to India.
• The Khanqah was the centre of social life.
• Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice on the banks of river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur in the fourteenth century was very famous. The Shaikh lived here and met visitors in the morning and evening.
• There was an open Kitchen (langar) and people from all walks of life came here from morning till late night.
• Visitors who came here included Amir Hasan Sijzi, Amir Khusrau and Ziyauddin Barani.
• Pilgrimage (Ziyarat) to tombs of Sufi saints was common. It was a practice for seeking the Sufis spiritual grace (Barakat).
• The most revered shrine was ‘Gharib Nawaz’, the shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin at Ajmer.
• This shrine was funded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa. Emperor Akbar visited several times and constructed a mosque within the compound of dargah.
• Specially trained musicians or qawwals performed music and dance to evoke divine ecstasy.
• Baba Farid’s compositions in the local language were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.
• In Karnataka, the Sufis were inspired by the pre-existing bhakti traditions and composed Dakhani, Lurinama (lullabies) and Shadinama (wedding songs).
• Sultans of Delhi always preferred the Sufis although there were instances of conflict between them.

New Devotional Paths in Northern India:

• Kabir was a poet-saint of 14th-15th centuries.
• Kabir’s verses were compiled in three distinct traditions
  • The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth in Uttar Pradesh.
  • The Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
  • Many of his verses were included in the Adi Granth Sahib.
• Kabir described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazarat and Pir. He also used terms from vedantic traditions, like alakh, nirakar, brahmin, atman, etc.
• Kabir accepted all types of philosophy i.e. Vedantic traditions, Yogic traditions and Islamic ideas.
• Kabir’s ideas probably crystallised through dialogue and debate.
• The message of Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings, where he advocated a form of Nirguna bhakti.
• According to Guru Nanak, the absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or form. His ideas expressed through hymns called ‘Shabad’ in Punjabi.
• Guru Arjan compiled Guru Nanak’s hymns along with the hymns of Baba Farid, Ravidas and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. Later, Guru Gobind Singh included the compositions of Guru Tegh Bahadur and this scripture was known as the ‘Guru Granth Sahib.’
• Mirabai was a famous woman-poet of Bhakti tradition. She composed many songs that were characterised by intense expression of emotions.
• Mirabai’s song inspired poor and low caste people in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Shankaradeva in the late fifteenth century was a leading proponent of Vaishnavism in Assam.
• He emphasised the need for ‘Naam Kirtan’ and encouraged the establishment of ‘Satra’ or monas tries and ‘naam ghar’ or prayer halls. His major compositions include the ‘Kirtana-ghosha’.

Religious Traditions of Northern India:

• Religious traditions included a wide variety, written in several different languages and styles. These ranged from the direct language of the Vachanas of Basavanna to the Persian farman of the Mughal Emperors.
• Historians have to understand that religious traditions like other traditions, are dynamic and change over time.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 6 Important terms:

• Great Tradition: The cultural practices of dominant social categories were called the Great Tradition.
• Little Tradition: These were that tradition which do not correspond with the Great Tradition.
• Integration of cult: Modes of worship.
• Jagannatha: The lord of the world.
• Tantricism: Worship of the golden.
• Alvar: Devotees of Vishnu in South India.
• Nayanars: Devotees of Shiva in South India.
• Saguna Bhakti: Bhakti focused on the worship of Shiva, Vishnu and Devi.
• Nirguna Bhakti: Worshipping a shapeless or an abstract form of God.
• Tavaram: Collection of Poems in Tamil.
• mama: Religious scholars of Islamic studies.
• Sharia: Law of governing the Muslim community.
• Maktubat: Letters written by Sufi-saints.
• Tazkiras: Biographical account of saints.
• Sangat: Religious society under which the followers assembled both in mornings and evening to listen Guru’s sermons.

Timeline:

• 1206 – Delhi Sultanate was set up
• 1236 – Death of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti
• 1469 – Birth of Guru Nanak Dev Ji
• 1604 – Compilation of Guru Granth Sahib
• 1699 – Foundation of Khalsa Panth by Guru Gobind Singh Ji Some Major Religious Teachers in the Subcontinent. This Timeline indicates the period of the major saints and reforms era
• 500-800 – CE Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti in Tamil Nadu
• 800-900 – Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Tondaradippodi in Tamil Nadu The teaching of these saints influence entire the people of India.
• 1000-1100 – Al Hujwiri, Data Ganj Bakhsh in the Punjab, Ramanujacharya in Tamil Nadu
• 1100-1200 – Basavanna in Karnataka
• 1200-1300 – Jnanadeva, Muktabai in Maharashtra; Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Rajasthan; Bahauddin Zakariyya and Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar in the Punjab; Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Delhi.
• 1300-1400 -Lai Ded in Kashmir, Lai Shahbaz Qalandar in Sind; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi; Ramananda in Uttar Pradesh; Chokhamela in Maharashtra; Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri in Bihar
• 1400-1500 – Kabir, Raidas, Surdas in Uttar Pradesh; Baba Guru Nanak in the Punjab; Vallabhacharya in Gujarat; Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu Daraz in Gulbarga, Shankaradeve in Assam; Tukaram in Maharashtra.
• 1500-1600 – Sri Chaitanya in Bengal; Mirabai in Rajasthan; Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi, Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Tulsidas in Uttar Pradesh.
• 1600-1700 – Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in Haryana; Miyan Mir in the Punjab.

Class 12 History Notes

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society

• Many foreign travellers visited India during medieval period. They came to India for several motives.
• Most of the travellers who came to India wrote their accounts.
• The accounts of these travellers dealt with various aspects. Some travellers accounts deal with the affairs of the court whereas few accounts are focussed on religious issues.
• Some travellers create about the contemporary style of architecture and monuments, whereas other depicts the social and economic life.
• The travellers who visited India presented the true picture of Indian civilisation in their accounts.
• Al-Biruni, a great scholar of central Asia, came to India in the 11th century. He arrived India during the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Al-Biruni was bom on 4 Sept. 973 at Khwarizm in Uzbekistan.
• Al-Biruni was well-versed in many languages. Languages such as Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit were known to him.
• Al-Biruni’s most outstanding work ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ was written in Ghazni and was concerned India. It was also known as Tarikh-ul-Hind and Tahqiq-ma-lil-Hind.
• Al-Biruni has thrown a light on caste system prevailing in the Hindu society.
• According to Al-Biruni’s description India’s economic condition was very good.
• Al-Biruni’s real name was Abu-Abdullah Muhammad. He was fond of travelling and wanted to increase his knowledge by establishing his contact with the people of different countries.
• He travelled thirty years of his life.
• The great traveller of Morocco died in 1377, but the account written by him ‘Rihla’ is of immense wealth.
• After returning to Morocco in 1354 he (Ibn Battuta) was ceremoniously welcomed by ‘Sultan’, Abu Iram.
• Sultan Abu Iram appointed Ibijuzayy to help Battuta to compile his account ‘Rihla’.
• Rihla was written in Arabic. In it describe whatever he saw in India.
• Undoubtedly Tlihla’ is considered as an invaluable source of Indian History in the 14th century.
• Francois Bernier was a French traveller who came to India in 17th century.
• Francois Bernier was a great French doctor, philosopher and an historian who remained in India from 1656 to 1688 and wrote his famous book entitled. “Travels in the Mughal court”.
• Francois has given great detail about Indian Kharkhenas. Town, land ownership system and social evil, i.e. sati system.
• Abdur Razzaq the great Iranian scholar came to India in 15th century. He was born in 1413 and was appointed the Qazi of Samarqand under Shah Rokh Khan.
• Abdur Razzaq stayed in the court of Vijayanagara empireDeva Raya II from 1442-1443 and gave a vind description about the Vijayanagara kingdom.
• Duarte Barbosa was a Portugese official in south India, who travelled Vijayanagara Empire during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya in 1518.
• Among the other important travellers who came to India in medieval period were Antonio Monserrate, Peter Mundy, Jean Baptisite Tavernier, Franciso Pelesart and Nikolo Muncci.

Our knowledge of the past can be enriched through the’descriptions of social life provided by travellers who visited the sub-continent. Generally, they recorded everyday activities and practices of common men along with the descriptions of the kings. Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and Francois Bernier were three famous travelers who visited the sub-continent from 11th century to 17th century.

Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind:

• Al-Biruni was born in 973 at Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan.
• He was well-versed in different languages like Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit.
• In 1017 with the invasion of Khwarizm, he arrived in Ghazni as a hostage. But gradually developed a liking for the city and interest for India.
• When the Punjab became a part of the Ghaznavid empire, he travelled widely in the Punjab and other parts of Northern India.
• He spent years in the company of Brahmana priests and scholars by learning Sanskrit and studying religions and philosophical texts.
• Al-Biruni wrote ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ in Arabic, in a simple and lucid manner.
• It is a voluminous text including 80 chapters covering subjects like religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
• Al-Biruni was familiar with translations and adaptations of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts into Arabic. However, he was also critical about the ways in which these texts were written, and clearly wanted to improve on them.

Al-Biruni’s View About Indian Society:

• According to Al-Biruni, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concepts could not be translated easily from one language to another.
• Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by comparing it with other societies. He tried to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India.
• Al-Biruni depended on the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc.
• Sanskrit texts laid down the rules of caste system from the point of view of Brahmanas, but in real life the system was not quite so rigid.

Ibn Battuta and his Book Rihla:

• Ibn Battuta wrote the book ‘Rihla’ in Arabic. This book provides extremely rich and interesting detail about the social and cultural life in the sub-continent in the 14th century.
• Ibn Battuta went to far-off places, exploring new worlds and peoples.
• Before coming to India, he travelled extensively to Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, Mecca and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa.
• When he came to Delhi, Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was the Sultan of Delhi. The Sultan was impressed by his scholarship and appointed him the ‘qazi’ or judge of Delhi.
• He visited Bengal, Assam, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Sumatra and China.
• He meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs, values, etc.
• Travelling was not secure at that time. During his travel, Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times and was severely wounded.
• Ibn Battuta spent several years travelling through North Africa, West Asia, parts of Central Asia, the Indian sub-continent and China and recorded extensively his experiences.

Battuta’s Description of Indian Society:

• In the 14th century, Indian sub-continent had its contact from China in the East to North West Africa and Europe in the West. Ibn Battuta travelled through these lands and arrived at Delhi in the 14th century after visiting sacred shrines, meeting with rulers, learned men and people who spoke Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other languages. He shared ideas, information and anecdotes.
• While describing Indian society, Ibn Battuta explained the unfamiliar things like coconut and paan in a unique way.
• Ibn Battuta found the cities of India densely populated and prosperous. According to him, Delhi was the largest city in India. He also had the same view for Daulatabad (in Maharashtra).
• The bazaars (markets) were the places of economic transactions and also the hub of social and cultural activities. There were masjids and temples to offer prayers and also some bazaars marked with spaces for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.
• Ibn Battuta found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility of the soil where farmers tend to cultivate two crops a year.
• Indian manufacturing flourished due to inter-Asian network of trade and commerce. These were in great demand in both West Asia and South-East Asia where artisans and merchants were fetching huge profits.
• Indian textiles, specially cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin were also in great demand.
• Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which was of two kinds, the horse-post called ‘uluq’ and the foot-post called ‘dawa’.

Francois Bernier: A French Traveller

• A number of Portuguese, Dutch, English and French travellers came to India in the 16th and 17th century. Of them, Jesuit Roberto Nobili, Duarte Barbosa, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier and Manucci wrote different aspects of Indian society.
• French doctor, political philosopher and historian Francois Bernier spent twelve years (1656 to 1668) in India and was closely associated with the Mughal court.
• Bernier travelled to several parts of India and wrote detailed accounts by comparing the situation in India with Europe.
• His works were published in France in 1670-71, and translated into English, Dutch, German and Italian. His writings became extremely popular.

Bernier and His View About Contemporary Society:

• As compared to Ibn Battuta, Bernier believed in a different intellectual tradition where he was more critical. He compared and contrasted what he saw in India with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular.
• Bernier’s book ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ is marked by detailed observations, critical insights and reflection. He constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe, generally emphasising the superiority of the latter.
• According to him, the Mughal emperor owned all the lands and distributed it among his nobles and it led to disastrous consequences for economy and society. This perception was supported by most of the travellers of that period.
• As having no legal right over land, landholders could not pass on their land to their childern. Thus, they avoid any kind of long-term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production.
• This crown ownership system of land ruined the agriculture as well as the living standard of all sections of society, except the ruling aristocracy w’hich oppressed the peasant class.
• He explained that because of crown ownership of land, Indian society has no social group or class between the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. He further said, “There is no middle state in India”.
• Bernier described Mughal king as the king of “beggars and barbarians”. But Abul Fazl gave a different account by describing revenue as a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection he provides, rather than as rent on land that he owned.
• Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the 18th century onwards. For instance, French philosopher Montesquieu used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism and in the 19th century, Karl Marx used this account to develop the Asiatic mode of production.
• He also explained that India had a more complex social reality where artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their products as profits were appropriated by the state. But at the same time, he added that the country used to exchange its manufacturing goods with the precious metals
• gold and silver, from outside the sub-continent. Whereas he also noticed existence of a prosperous merchant community as well.
• There were all kinds of towns i.e. manufacturing towns, trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns, etc.
• The different urban groups included mahajans, sheth, nagarsheth, hakim or vaid, pundit or mulla, wakii, painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc.

Views of Travellers about Women:

• Slaves were openly sold in markets with horses, camels and other commodities.
• I bn Battuta mentioned that there was considerable differentiation among slaves.
• Slaves were generally used for domestic labour and female slaves were used for the service of Sultan and to keep a watch on the nobles.
• Bernier wrote about the practice of’Sati’. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.
• Women’s labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural production.
• Women from merchant families participated in commercial activities.
• Travellers’ accounts provide us important information of that period but many aspects of social life were unnoticed by them.

 

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 Important Terms:

• Hindu: The term “Hindu’ was derived from an old Persian word which was used in 6th century BCE. It referred to the region towards the east of the river Sindhu, i.e. Indus.
• Antyaja: Those people who were included in the major four castes prevalent in the Indian society.
• Tarababad: It means the music market in Daultabad.
• Ulaq: Hose postal system.
• Daw: Foot postal system.
• Camp Towns: Those towns which owed their existence and survival to the imperial camp.

Time Line:

• 973 – Al-Biruni was bom in Uzbekistan
• 1031 – Kitub-ul-Hind in Arabic by Al-Biruni was published
• 1048 – Death fo Al-Biruni
• 1304 – Ibn Battuta bom at Tangier
• 1333 –  Ibn Battuta’s reached Sindh
• 1354 – Ibn Battuta’s return to Morocco
• 1377 – Rihla was published
• 1620 – Francisco-Pelsart a Dutch traveller reached India
• 1628 – Petermundy of England visited India
• 1656-68 – Francois Bernier visited India

Class 12 History Notes

 

Attitude And Social Cognition –  CBSE Notes for Class 12 Psychology

FACTS THAT MATTER
Social Psychology is a branch of Psychology which investigates how the behaviour of individuals is affected by others and the social environment.
We form attitudes or develop ways of thinking about specific topics and people. We form impressions about persons we meet. We are also interested in why people behave in the ways they do-attribution.
The combination of social processes like attitude, impression formation, attribution and pro social behaviour is called social cognition.
Social cognition refers to the mental activities related to the gathering and interpretation of information about the social world.
Social cognition of all’ the individuals is affected by the social environment (Societal conditions in the society peace, harmony, trust or aggression, frustration, disharmony and distrust towards individuals, groups, peoples, relationship and social issues.)
Because of social influences, people form attitudes or ways of thinking about specific topics and people. Impression formation is when we make inferences about personal qualities of people we meet. Attribution is when we assign causes to the behaviour shown in specific social situation.
Attitude:
• Attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views or thoughts, regarding some topic (called the ‘attitude object’), which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality).
• The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect, the emotional component is known as the effective aspect, and the tendency to act is called the behavioural (or conative) aspect. A-B-Ocomponents (Affective-Behavioural-Cognitive components) of attitude.
Beliefs refer to the cognitive component of attitudes and form the ground on which attitudes stand, such as belief in God, or belief in democracy as a political ideology.
Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or ethical values. One example of a value is hard work or honesty. Values are formed when a particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of the person’s outlook on life.
Features of Attitude:
(i) Valence (positivity or negativity).
(ii) Extremeness indicates how positive or negative an attitude is.
(iii) Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) refers to how many attitudes there are within a broader attitude. An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it contains only one or a few attitudes and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes.
(iv) Centrality: This refers to the role of a particular attitude in the system much more than non-central (or peripheral) attitudes would.
Attitude Formation:
In general, attitudes are learned through one’s own experiences, and through interaction With others.
Process of Attitude Formation:
• Association, e.g., a positive attitude towards a subject is learned through the positive association between a teacher and a student.
• Reward or punishment increases/decreases the further development of that attitude.
• Modelling observing others being rewarded or punished for expressing thoughts, or showing behaviour of a particular kind towards the attitude object.
• Group or Cultural norms through the norms of our group or culture which may become part of our social cognition, in the form of attitude.
• Exposure to information, e.g., positive and negative attitudes are formed through the media.
Factors that Influence Attitude Formation:
(i) Family and School Environment particularly in the early years of life.
(ii) Reference Groups indicate the norms regarding acceptable behaviour/ways of thinking, reflect learning of attitudes through cultural norms, noticeable during beginning of adolescence.
(iii) Personal Experiences (direct).
(iv) Media-related Influences. Technological advances have made audio-visual media, school level textbook and the Internet very powerful sources of information
Attitude Change:
Attitudes that are still in the formative stage, and are more like opinions, are much more likely to change compared to attitude that have become firmly established and have become a part of the individual’s values.
1. Balance or P-O-X triangle (Fritz Heider) represents the relationships between three aspects or components of attitude.
• P is the person whose attitude is being studied,
• O is another person
• X is the topic towards which the attitude is being studied (attitude object). It is also possible that all three are persons. The basic idea is that an attitude changes if there is a state of imbalance between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and P-X attitude. This is because imbalance is logically uncomfortable.
Imbalance is found when all three sides are negative, or two sides are positive, and one side is negative. Balance is found when all three sides are positive or two sides are negative, and one side is positive.
2. Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger) emphasises on the cognitive component. Cognitive components of an attitude must be ‘constant’ (opposite of‘dissonant’), i.e., they should be logically in line with each other. If an individual finds, that two cognitions in an attitude dissonant, then one of them will be changed in the direction of consonance.
Both balance and cognitive dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency which means that two components or elements of the attitude, or attitude system, must be in the same direction. If this does not happen, then the person experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e. the sense that ‘something is not quite right’ in the attitude system.
3. The Two-Step Concept (S.M. Mohsin): According to him, attitude change takes place in the form of two steps:
(i) The target of change (person whose attitude is to be changed) identifies with the source (person through whose influence the attitude is to be changed). Identification means that the target and the source have a mutual regard and attraction.
(ii) The source himself/herself shows an attitude change, by actually changing him/her behaviour towards the attitude object. Observing the source’s changed attitude and behaviour, the target also shows an attitude change through behaviour. This is a kind of imitation or observational learning.
Factors that Influence Attitude Change:
• Characteristics of the Existing Attitude: All four properties of attitudes mentioned earlier, namely, valence (positively or negatively), extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity), and centrality or significance of the attitude, determine attitude, determine attitude change. Positive, less extreme, peripheral (less significant) and simpler attitudes are easier to change.
In addition, one must also consider the direction and extent of attitude change. Congruent (same direction of the existing attitude) or incongruent (direction opposite). Moreover, an attitude may change in the direction of the information that is presented, or in a direction opposite to that of the information presented.
• Source Characteristics: Source credibility and attractiveness. Attitudes are more likely to change when the message comes from a highly credible source rather than from a low- credible source.
• Message Characteristics: Attitudes will change when the amount of information that is
given about the topic is just enough, neither too much nor too little. Whether the message contains a rational or an emotional appeal, also makes a difference. The motives activated by the message and the mode of spreading the message (face-to-face transmission is more effective than indirect transmission).
• Target Characteristics: Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility (open and flexible personality), strong prejudices, self-esteem, more willing because they base their attitude on more information and thinking.
Attitude-Behaviour Relationship:
Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitudes and behaviour when—
(i) the attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the attitude system.
(ii) the person is aware of his/her attitude.
(iii) there is very little or no external pressure for the person to behave in a particular way.
Prejudice and Discrimination:
Prejudices are usually negative attitudes against a particular group, and in many cases, may be based on stereotypes (the cognitive component) about the specific group. A stereotype is a cluster of ideas regarding the characteristics of a specific group. The cognitive component of prejudice is frequently accompanied by dislike or hatred, the affective components of prejudice are more difficult to change.
Sources of Prejudice:
• Learning: Prejudice can also be learned through association, reward and punishment, observing others, group or cultural norms and exposure to information that encourages prejudice. The family, reference groups, personal experiences and the media may play a role in the learning of prejudices. People who learn prejudiced attitudes may develop a ‘prejudiced personality’.
• A strong Social Identity and in Group Bias: Individual who have a strong sense of social identity and have a very positive attitude towards their own group boost this attitude by holding negative attitudes towards other groups.
• Scapegoating: This is a phenomenon by which the majority group places the blame on minority group for its own social, economic or political problems. The minority is too weak or too small in number to defend itself against such accusation.
• Kernel of Truth Concept: Sometimes people may continue to hold stereotypes because they think that there must be some truth, or ‘Kernel of truth’ in which everyone says about the other group.
• Self-fulfilling Prophecy: The group that is the target of prejudice is itself responsible for continuing the prejudice by behaving in ways that justify the prejudice or confirm the negative expectation.
Strategies for Handling Prejudice
The strategies for handling prejudice would be effective if they aim at:
(a) minimising opportunities for learning prejudices,
(b) changing such attitudes,
(c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the in-group, and
(d) discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy among the victims of prejudice.
These goals can be accomplished through:
• Education and information dissemination, for correcting stereotypes related to specific target groups, and tackling the problem of a strong in-group bias.
• Increasing intergroup contact that allows for direct communication, removal of mistrust between the groups, and discovery context, there is close interaction and they are not different in power or status.
• Highlighting individual identity rather than group identity, thus weakening the importance of group (both in-group and out-group) as a basis of evaluating the other person.
Social Cognition refers to all those psychological processes that deal with the gathering and processing of information related to social objects (processes that help in understanding, explaining and interpreting social behaviour). Social cognition is guided by mental units called schemata.
SCHEMAS and Stereotypes
A schema is defined as a mental structure that provides a framework, set of rules or guidelines for processing information about any object. Schemata (or ‘schemas’) are the basic units stored in our memory, and function as shorthand ways of processing information, thus reducing the time and mental effort required in cognition.
Schemata that function in the form of categories are called prototypes, which are the entire set of schemata or qualities that help us to define an object completely. In social cognition, category-based schemata, that are related to groups of people, are called stereotypes (over generalized, are not directly verified). The inferences you have drawn are not the result of your logical thinking or direct experience, but are based on pre-conceived ideas about a particular group.
Impression Formation and Attribution:
The process of coming to know a person can be broadly divided into two parts— (a) Impression formation and (b) Attribution. The person who forms the impression is called perceiver. (Response to information about the qualities of the target, organises this information, and draws inferences about the target). The individual about whom the impression is formed is called the target.
Impression Formation and attribution are influenced by:
• the nature of information available to the perceiver,
• social schemats in the perceiver (including stereotypes),
• personality characteristics of the perceiver, and
• situational factors.
Impression Formation
The process of impression formation consists of the following three sub-processes:
(a) Selection: we take into account only some bits of information about the target person
(b) Organisation: the selected information is combined in a systematic way
(c) Inference: we draw a conclusion about what kind of person the target is
• The order or sequence in which information is presented affects the kind of impression formed.
• Primacy effect, the information presented first has a stronger effect than the information presented at the end. In Recency effect, the perceiver may be asked to pay attention to all the information whatever information comes at the end may have a stronger influence. ,
• Halo effect, a tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive qualities must also be having other specific positive qualities that are associated with the first set.
Attribution of Causality:
• Bernard Weiner: When we assign a cause to a person’s behaviour, we can broadly classify the cause as being internal (something within the person) or external (something outside the person). Stable factors are those causes that do not change with the time, while unstable factors are those that do.
• Fundamental Attribution Error: There is an overall tendency for people to give greater weight age to internal or dispositional factors, than to external or situational factors. Indians tend to make more external (situational) attributions than Americans do.
• There is a difference between the attribution made for success, and the attribution made for failure. In general, people attribute success to internal factors, such as their ability or hard work. They attribute failure to external factors, such as bad luck, the difficulty of the task, and so on.
• Actor-Observer Effect-A distinction is also found between the attribution that a person makes for his/her own positive and negative experiences (actor-role), and the attribution made for another person’s positive and negative experiences (observer-role, external).
Behaviour in the Presence of Others:
In 1897, Norman Triplett observed that individuals saw better performance in the presence of others than when they are performing the same task alone because of the eagerness to get praise or reward is stronger.
Social Facilitation:
(i) Zajone performance on specific tasks is influenced by the mere presence of others because the person experience arousal, which makes the person react in a more, intense manner.
(ii) Evaluation apprehension (Cottrell): The person will be praised if the performance is good (reward), or criticised if it is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid mistakes.
(iii) Nature of the task in the case a simple or familiar task, the person is sure of performing well and the eagerness to get praise or reward is stronger. In case of complex or new task, the person may be afraid of making mistakes. The fear of criticism or punishment is stronger. So the individual performs worse in the presence of others than he/she does when alone.
(iv) If the others are also performing the same task, this is called a situation of co-action. In this situation, there is social comparison and competition.
Social Loafing: The larger the group, the less effort each member puts in. This phenomenon is based on diffusion of responsibility.
Pro-social Behaviour: Pro-social behaviour is very similar to ‘altruism’, which means doing something for or thinking about the welfare of others without any self-interest.
Characteristics:
• Aim to benefit or do good to another person or other person,
• Be done without expecting anything in return,
• Be done willingly by the person, and not because of any kind of pressure, and
• Involve some difficulty or ‘cost’ to the person giving help.
Factors influencing Pro-social Behaviour:
• Based on an inborn, natural tendency in human beings to help other members of their own species. ”
• Influenced by Learning: Individual who are brought up in a family environment that sets examples of helping others praises helpfulness.
• Cultural Factors: Some cultures actively encourage people to help the needy and distressed. In cultures that encourage independence, individual will show less pro-social behaviour, because people are expected to take care of themselves.
• When the situation activates certain social norms that require helping others.
(a) Social responsibility: We should help anyone who needs help, without considering other factors.-
(b) Reciprocity: We should help those who have helped us in the past.
(c) Equity: We should help others whenever we find that it is fair to do so.
• Expected reactions of the person who is being helped. For example, people might be unwilling to give money, to a needy person because they feel that the person might feel insulted.
• Individuals who have a high level of empathy, that is, the capacity to feel the distress of the person who is to be helped, such as Baba Saheb Amte and Mother Teresa. Pro-social behaviour is also more likely in situations that arouse empathy, such as the picture of starving children in a famine.
• Factors such as a bad mood, being busy with one’s own problems or feeling that the person to be helped is responsible for his/her own situation (that is when an internal attribution is made for the need state of the other person).
• When the number of bystanders is more than one. This phenomenon is called diffusion of responsibility. On the other hand, if there is only bystander, this person is more likely to take the responsibility and actually help the victim.
WORDS THAT MATTER
• Actor-observer Effect: The tendency to make different attributions for one’s own experience or behaviour in case of another person (observer).
• Arbitration: Explaining our own or others behaviour by pointing out the causes.
• Arousal: The tension experienced at the thought of others being present and/or performance being evaluated.
• Attitudes: States of the mind, thoughts or ideas regarding a topic, containing cognitive, affective and behavioural components.
• Attitude Object: The target of an attitude.
• Attribution: Explaining our own or others’ behaviour by pointing out the cause(s).
• Balance: The state of an attitude system in which the attitudes between a person (P) and another individual (O), the person (P) and the attitude object (X), and between the other individual (O) and the attitude object (X) are in the same direction, or logically consistent with each other.
• Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts or ideas regarding a topic.
• The centrality of Attitude: The extent to which a specific attitude affects the entire attitude system.
• Cooperation: Groups work together to achieve shared goals, we refer to it as cooperations.
• Conflict: A state of disturbance or tension resulting from opposing motives, drives, needs or goals.
• Co-action: A situation in which many people are performing the same task individually in the presence of others.
• Cognitive Consistency: A state in which thoughts or ideas are logically in line with each other.
• Cognitive Dissonance: The state of an attitude system in which two cognitive elements are logically contradictory, or inconsistent.
• Congruent Attitude Change: Attitude change in the same direction as that of the existing attitude.
• Congruent altitude change: Altitude change in the same direction as that of the existing attitude.
• Discrimination: Behaviour that shows a distinction between two or more persons, often on the basis of person or person membership of a particular group.
• Diffusion of Responsibility: The thought that when others are present, one person alone will not be held responsible for doing or not doing something; other members are also responsible and will, therefore, do the task.
• Empathy: Reacting to another’s feeling with an emotional response that is similar to the others feelings.
• Extremeness of attitude: It refers to how far an attitude is from the neutral point.
• Evaluation Apprehension: The fear of being evaluated negatively by others who are present.
• Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to attribute internal causes more than external cause for behaviour.
• Halo Effect: The tendency to link positive qualities with other positive qualities about which information is not available.
• Identity: The distinguishing character of the individual, who each of us is; what our roles are, and what we are capable of.
• Identification: The process of feeling one with another person, usually resulting from liking or extreme regard for the other person.
• Intergroup conflict: A process in which either an individual or a group perceives that others have opposing interest and both try to contradict each other.
• Kernel of Truth: The small element of truth that may be perceived in over-generalised clusters of beliefs about groups (stereotypes).
• Negotiation: Reciprocal communications so as to reach an agreement in situation in which there is a conflict.
• Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test.
• Persuasibility: The degree to which people can be made to change their attitudes.
• Prejudice: A prejudgment, usually a negative attitude that is unverified, and is often towards a group.
• Primary Effect: The stronger role of information that comes first.
• Pro-social Behaviour: Behaviour that does good to another person, is done without any pressure from outside, and without any exception of a reward or return.
• Prototype: A schema in the form of a category representing all the possible qualities of an object or a person.
• Recency Effect: The stronger role of information that comes last.
• Scapegoating: Placing the blame on a group for something that has gone wrong, because the blamed group cannot defend itself.
• Schema: A mental structure that guides social (and other) cognition.
• Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Behaving in a way that confirms the prediction others make.
• Simplicity or Complexity (Multiplexity) of Attitude: Whether the whole attitude consists of a single or very few sub-attitudes (simple), or contains many sub-attitudes (multiplex).
• Social Loafing: In a group, each additional individual puts in less effort, thinking that
others will be putting in their effort.
• Social Cognition: The process through which we notice, interpret, remember, and later use social information. It helps in making sense of other people and ourselves.
• Social Facilitation: The tendency for people’s performance to improve in the presence of others, or an audience.
• Social facilitations: The tendency for people’s performance to improve in the presence of others, or an audience.
• Superordinate goals: A mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both groups worl cooperatively.
• Stereotype: An over-generalised and unverified prototype about a particular group.
• Valence of Attitude: Whether an attitude is positive or negative.
• Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal modes of behaviour or end-state of existence. Attitudes that have a strong evaluative and ought aspect.

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Class 12 History Notes Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments

• In the reconstruction of the history of India from 600 BCE to 600 CE, the historians took the invaluable information from Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical texts.
• Besides these texts, temples, stupas, monuments, etc also provide authentic information.
• The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum and her successor played a significant role in the preservation of the Sanchi Stupa.
• Annans the new sect, that emerged in India in 6th century BCE. Buddhism and Jainism were most popular.
• Lord Mahavira is regarded as the real founder of Jainism.
• The founder of Buddhism was Lord Buddha.
• Jainism remained continued to India, but Buddha spread to the other countries.
• Ashoka and Kanishka of Buddhism in distant land.
• Both Jainism and Buddhism gave a rich legacy in different fields of Indian Society.
• During this period, i.e., 600 BCE to 600 CE, two Brahamanical sects. Vaishanavism and Shaivism made considerable progress.

In the reconstruction of the history of India from 600 BCE to 600 CE, the historians had taken information from Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical texts. Besides this a large number of monuments and inscriptions provided significant information.

The Background of Different Religions:

• Tire mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning point in world history since it saw the emergence of thinkers like Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle in Greece and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India.
• They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between human beings and the cosmic (connected with the whole universe) order.
• There were several pre-existing traditions of thoughts, religious beliefs and practices. All these we know from Rigveda which compiled between 1500 and 100 BCE.
• Sacrifices were performed by the heads of the households for the well-being of the domestic unit.
• More elaborate sacrifices like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha were performed by chiefs and kings with the help of Brahmana priests.
• Ideas contained in the Upanishads generated a variety of questions about life especially meaning of life and possibility of life after death and rebirth.
• Lively discussions and debates took place in Kutagarashala, a hut where travelling mendicants took shelter.
• Thinkers like Mahavira and Buddha questioned the authority of the Vedas.

The Message of Mahavira:

• According to Jainism, entire world is animated, i.e even stones, rocks and water have life.
• Non-injury to living beings is central to Jaina philosophy. According to Jainism, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma.
• To free oneself from the cycle of Karma, asceticism and penance are required. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows. These are:
  • to abstain (to decide not to do something) from killing
  • to abstain from stealing
  • to abstain from lying
  • to observe celibacy (not married and not naring sex)
  • to abstain from possessing property.
• Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil languages.

The Buddha: The Enlightened Soul

• Gautama Buddha was one of the most influential teachers of that time whose message spread across the sub-continent, Central Asia to China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
• Siddhartha was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He was deeply shocked when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse. He left the palace and set out in search of his own truth.
• After attaining enlightment, he came to be known as the Buddha or the enlightened one.
• For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.

The Teachings of Buddha:

• According to Buddhism, the w’orld is transient (anicca) and constantly changing and it is also soulless (anatta). Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
• Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana.

Followers of the Buddha:

• Buddha founded a ‘Sangha’, an organisation of monks who became teachers of ‘dhamma’. As they lived on alms, they were known as ‘bhikkhus’.
• Later women also entered the ‘Sangha’ and were known as bhikkhuni. Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to become ‘bhikkhuni’. Buddha’s followers included kings, wealthy men, gahapatis and also ordinary people like workers, slaves and craft people.
• Buddhism appealed to many people dissatisfied with existing religious practices and confused by the rapid social changes taking place around them.

Sculpture of Buddha Period:

• The enlightenment of Buddha was showed by different symbols by many early sculptors. For e.g. the Bodhi trees (symbolises an event in the life of Buddha), the empty seat (indicates the meditation of the Buddha), the stupa (represents the mahaparinibbana), the wheel of dharma (shows first serman of the Buddha at Sarnath).
• Shalabhanjika was another feature of sculptural art which was regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the decoration of the stupa.
• Some of the finest depictions of animals like elephants, horses, monkeys and cattle are also found in the stupas.
• Gajalakshmi, the Goddess of good fortune, and the serpent are also found.

New Religious Traditions During Buddha Period:

• Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment and nibbana through his own efforts. Later the concept of Bodhisatta was developed.
• Buddhism was divided into Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. This period also saw the emergence of Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
• In such worship, the bond between the devotee and the God was visualised as one of love and devotion or bhakti. The temples to house images of Gods and Goddesses were being built with a tail-structure known as the Shikhara over the central shrine.
• One of the unique features of early temples was that some of these were hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves.

Explanation of Religions:

• 19th century European scholars were more familiar with the statues of Buddha and Bodhisattas which were evidently based on Greek models. But they were sometimes could not understand the sculptures of gods and goddesses with multiple arms and heads or with combinations of human and animal forms.
• Art historians have tried to explain the meaning of sculptures with the help of textual references (e.g. Puranas), but it was not an easy task.
• Many rituals, religious beliefs and practices were not even recorded in a permanent visible form, these were only practised by the respective communities.

Stupas:

• Buddhist literature mentions several Chaityas which are places associated with the Buddha’s life.
• Stupa contained relics (bodily remains of Buddha or objects used by him) regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
• According to a Buddhist text ‘Ashokavadana’, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
• By the second century BCE, a number of stupas in Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath were built.
• Stupas were built from the donations made by- king, guilds, common people ‘bhikkhus’ and ‘bhikkhunis’.
• The structure of stupas comprised several parts, Anda (semi circular mound of Earth), Harmika (balcony-like structure), Yasthi (like mast) and Chhatri or umbrella.
• The early Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut w^rere plain but the gateways were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points.

The Great Sanchi Stupa:

• The Great Stupa at Sanchi in the state of Madhya Pradesh is one of the most wonderful ancient buildings. 19th century Europeans were very interested in the Stupa at Sanchi.
• The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum provided money to preserve the site of Sanchi Stupa.
• John Marshall wrote important volumes on Sanchi.
• The discovery of Sanchi has transformed our understanding of early Buddhism. It stands as an example of the successful restoration and preservation of ancient site by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Amaravati Stupas:

• In 1854, Walter Elliot visited Amaravati and collected several sculpture panels and discovered the remains of Western gateway.
• He came to the conclusion that the structure at Amaravati was one of the most significant Buddhist stupas.
• Unfortunately, Amaravati did not survive as sculptures from this site were removed from the site instead of preserving things where they were found.

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 4 Important Terms:

• Vedic Sanskrit: A special kind of Sanskrit in which hyms and verses were composed.
• Rajsuya Yajna: A special kind of yajna in which sacrifices are performed by chiefs and kings who depended on the Brahaman to conduct these rituals.
• Tripitaka: Three books of Buddhist sacred text.
• Sanghe: Monastic order.
• Tirthankar: A great teacher in Jainism.
• Stupa: A Sanskrit word which means a heap. Stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called ande.

Time Line:

• 468 B.C.   Mahavira passed away and attained Nirwan at the age of 72.
• First century B.C.E.  Jainism enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga king Kharavela.
• Fourth century B.C.E.  Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa (Odisha).
• 563 B.C.E.  Gautama Buddha was bom in a Shakya Kshatriya family in Kapilavastu.
• 487 B.C.E.  The First Buddhist Council.
• 387 B.C.E.  The Second Buddhist Council.
• 251 B.C.  The Third Buddhist Council.

Class 12 History Notes