Bhagya

Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Rights and Duties in the Indian Constitution

• Rights are the favorable conditions and guarantees to be provided by a state to its citizens to live up a dignified life.
• These rights can be categorized as Social Rights, Political Rights and Fundamental Rights to procure equality, liberty and social justice into society.
• Fundamental Rights are specially protected to ensure that they are not violated even by the government. Because these are protected by the constitution of the country.
• There are 6 Fundamental Rights guaranteed by Indian Constitution to its citizens:
  • Right to Equality
  • Right to Freedom
  • Right to Freedom of Religion
  • Right against Exploitation
  • Cultural and Educational Rights
  • Right to Constitutional Remedies
• Fundamental Rights except the Right to Life and personal liberty may be suspended only during the emergencies like foreign attacks or internal disturbances.
• South African Constitution grants most extensive range of rights to its citizens including even right to dignity, privacy, fair labour practices, healthy environment, adequate housing, information, etc.
• Indian Constitution contains Directive Principles of State Policy also to establish a welfare state along with the Fundamental Rights.
• The judiciary has the power to enforce the Fundamental Rights but the Directive Principles of State are not enforceable by law.
• By the 42nd amendment, in 1976, the Fundamental Duties have also been inserted which are ten in numbers to defend our country, promote harmony and protect the environment.
• The inclusion of fundamental duties has not changed the status of our fundamental rights.

Important terms:

• Rights: These are guarantees to citizens to live up a social life in a dignified manner.
• Duties: A performance towards others or society to enjoy rights.
• Constitutional Remedies: Protective arrangements to citizens by the Constitution against any exploitation.
• Exploitation: The act of doing injustice with others in any manner.
• Begar: A forced labour without payment.
• Minorities: These are the groups having common language or religion and in a particular part of the country or in a country as a whole, these are out-numbered by some other social sections.
• Marginalized Communities: Communities left ignored like Dalits, OBCs, Weaker sections,, etc.

Class 11 Political Science Notes

Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 Constitution: Why and How?

• A constitution is a written set of laws and fundamental principles to develop a relationship between the people and the government which comprises a number of articles about the state.
• We need a constitution:
  • To provide a set of basic rules to allow minimal coordination amongst the members of a society.
  • To specify how the government would be constituted and who has power to make decisions in the society.
  • To lay some limitations on government’s power by guaranteeing rights to the citizens.
  • To enable the government to fulfill aspirations of a society and create conditions for a just society.
  • To express the fundamental identity of people.
• The Constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly in 1946 under the Cabinet Mission Plan.
• The Constituent Assembly spent 2 years 11 months and 18 days to prepare the constitution to be adopted on November 26, 1949 and came into force on 26 January, 1950.
• The Constitution of India is the Supreme Law to be accepted and respected by all the citizens as well as institutions of the country.
• The Constitution of India is a blend of flexibility and rigidity as it is federal in form but unitary in spirit.
• The main federal features of the Indian Constitution are written and flexible constitution, distribution of powers between the center and the states, supremacy of judiciary and existence of bi-cameral legislature.
• The framers of Indian Constitution have borrowed a number of provisions as per the suitability of the nation from different countries, i.e. the British Constitution, the American Constitution, the Constitution of Canada, the Constitution of Ireland, the French Constitution, etc. along with the Government of India Act, 1935.

Important terms:

• Promulgation: To announce publically at the starting of a law.
• Deliberation: Considerations during the framing of Constitution.
• Disparity: A lack of equality and similarity in a war that is not fair.
• Suppressed: To prevent to express the feelings of someone.
• Sects: Different groups within a community.
• Laws: A set of rules governing the administration of country to be enforced by political authority.
• Integration: A harmonious relation with the feelings of brotherhood.
• Objective Resolution: Resolution to define aims of Assembly.

Class 11 Political Science Notes

NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 Terms, Concepts and their Use in Sociology

Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 NCERT Textbook Questions Solved

Question 1.
Why do we need to use special terms and concepts in sociology?
Answer:
As opposed to commonsensical knowledge, sociology like any other science has its own body of concepts and methods of data collection.

As a social science, sociology does need to have certain agreed upon meanings of social realities and processes in studying. Each subject is required to have a standard vocabulary, terminology, language and concepts through which professionals can converse and maintain the different identity of its subject.
It becomes all the more important to discuss sociological terms so as to distinguish what they mean from commonsensical usage which may have varied meanings and connotations.

Question 2.
As a member of society you must be interacting with and in different groups. How do you see these groups from a sociological perspective?
Answer:
Social group refers to the members or individuals defined by formal or informal criteria of membership, who share a feeling of unity or are bound together in relatively stable patterns of interaction is known as social group.
The members of social group establish relationships on the basis of common characteristics and goals and influence each other.

Social groups can be defined as an organised structure of two or more persons who interact with one another, have shared goals, are interdependent, and consider themselves as members of a group.
Groups have the following salient characteristics:

• A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group from the other and gives the group its unique identity.
• A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups function either working towards a given goal or away from certain threats facing the group.
• Persistent interaction to provide continuity.
• A stable pattern of interaction.
• Acceptance of common norms and structures.
• A collection of individuals who are interdependent on what one is doing may have consequences for others.
• There is an organised structure by a set of roles, norms, status and cohesiveness.

Sociologists, Anthropologists and Social Psychologists categorised groups into different types:
Primary and Secondary groups

• Primary groups are pre-existing formations which are usually given to the individual whereas secondary groups are those which the individual joins’ by choice, e.g., family, caste and religion are primary groups, whereas membership of a political party is an example of secondary group.
• In a primary group, there is face to face interaction, members have close physical proximity and they share warm emotional bonds.
• Primary groups are central to individual functioning and have a major role in developing values and ideals of the individual during the early stages of development.
• Secondary groups are those where relationships among members are more impersonal, indirect and less frequent.
• In the primary group, boundaries are less permeable i.e. members do not have the option to choose membership as compared to secondary groups where it is easy to leave and choose another group.
• Primary groups have a sense of belongingness whereas secondary groups are relatively large in size, maintain formal and impersonal relationships e.g. schools, offices, hospitals etc.

Formal and informal groups
The functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally in formal groups
The formation of formal groups is based on specific rules or laws and members have
definite roles.
Formal groups differ to informal groups on the basis of structure.
Informal groups are more flexible and members have close relationship.

In group – Out group:
The term In-group refers to one’s own group and Out-group refers to another group.

For In-group members, we use the word ‘we’ while for Out-group members the word ‘they’ is used.
Persons in the In-group are generally supposed to be similar and viewed favourably and have desirable traits.
Members of this group are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the In-group members.

Peer group:
A set of individuals who, share certain common characteristics such as age, ethnicity or occupation, perceive themselves and are recognised by others as a distinct social collectivity.
The group is seen to have its own culture, symbols, sanctions and rituals, into which the new members must be socialised according to which those who fail to comply with group norms may be ostracized.

Reference group:
The term ‘Reference group’ was coined by Herbert Hyman.
Hyman distinguished between a membership group to which people actually belong to and a reference group which is used as a basis for comparison.
A reference group may or may not be a membership group.

We all have a world of our dreams and desires. In sociological perspective, we all live in a social world. We get fascinated and attracted towards a group which might appear to be leading a more fulfilling life. When we look up to other people or groups, we secretly aspire to be like them. We start identifying with them, we internalise their traits, behavioural patterns and actions so that we may like them. Thus we do not belong to our reference groups, we only identify them.

Newcomb (social psychologist) used reference groups to help explain the changing values and attitudes of students of a liberal women’s college. Many of the women who came from politically conservative background developed increasingly liberal attitudes over the course of their college careers, as they came to identify more with the college faculty and less with their family of origin. The girls who changed most were those characterised by independence from their parents, a sense of personal adequacy in social relations in achieving their goals.

For example, many a time school and college girls and boys who are basically members of students group admire, appreciate and identify with the stars of Bollywood e.g. Sadhna, Rajesh Khanna etc. and develop desire to become like them secretly. They initiate their life style, hair style, talking style, clothes etc. Basically their membership group is students group but they get fascinated with the film stars group which for them is the reference groups.
From sociological perspective if a society has strong healthy role models related to politics, religion, profession etc. as reference group then young generation do get influenced with them accordingly.

Question 3.
What have you observed about the stratification system existing in your society? How are individual lives affected by stratification?
Answer:
The term ‘stratification’ in sociology is usually applied to studies of structured social inequality i.e. studies of any systematic inequalities between groups of people, which
arise as the unintended consequence of social processes and relationships. When we ask why there is poverty, why Dalits and women in India are disadvantaged, we are posing questions about social stratification.

Social stratification is the core issue of micro sociology, the study of whole society. Social stratification is concerned in different ways with the issues of class and status – group formation as the key to understanding social integration, that is, the extent to which social relationships are cohesive (togetherness) or divisive which in consequence determines social order.

I have observed that stratification system in our society denotes existence of structure, of inequality between different groups of Indian society.
Indian society consists of a strata in hierarchy i.e. most favoured people at the top and least privileged people at the bottom of the society. Economic disparity leading to class system, caste system, etc. play significant role in stratification in Indian society.

• In Indian caste stratification system, individual’s status is ascribed by birth rather than individual’s achievements and his/her contribution or his/her psychological attributes.
• Against this stratification of Indian society there is a ray of hope. Due to economic growth, constitutional provision, urbanisation, industrialisation, education, easy communication and enlightened media our society is gradually changing towards betterment.
• Stratification is a natural process of any society. As we know, society is a group. And group is an organised structure in which members have a status role.
• Social stratification gets evolved to ensure that the most important position should be occupied by qualified people.
• The roles refer to expectations which is dynamic and behavioural aspect of status. Status refers to position of each member in the society. The status of any member has an institutionalised role. The role becomes regularised, standardised and formalised in the society.
• Social stratification begins from general assumption or based on the belief of functionalism that no society is classless or without stratification. The only thing required is coordination, balance, integration and development of everyone should be the objective of any healthy society.

Question 4.
What is social control? Do you think the modes of social control in different spheres of society are different? Discuss.
Answer:
The term ‘social control’ refers to the social process by which the behaviour of individuals or group is regulated.
Society is a harmonious organisation of human beings and expected to perform their functions accordingly. In order to exist and progress society has to exercise certain control over its members, such controls are termed as social control. Consequently social control is pervasive feature of any society.
Social control helps to restrain the unwanted behaviour of the individuals and the groups. It is an influence, exercised by society for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole.

Social control varies from one society to another because each society has its own rules and norms. Different types of societies like individualistic society or collectivistic societies have different expectations (roles) from their members.
Indian cultural values and general standards of life are different from western individualistic society, therefore both the societies have different patterns of social control. We emphasise on socialisation whereas technologically advanced western society focuses on individual liberty.

Social control considers customs, traditions, rituals, rules and sub rules according to the social demands. Accordingly in that particular society, family system, marriage system, positive and negative conventions, religion and education systems develop. Members of that particular society should conform these systems. Society develops an appropriate social control for that particular society.

Question 5.
Identify the different roles and status that you play and are located in. Do you think roles and status change? Discuss when and how they change.
Answer:
For self-attempt.

Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 NCERT Extra Questions

Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 6.
Define formal group.
Answer:
The groups which are arranged and organised. These are large or a part of large organisation. Formal groups are always normative hierarchal structure in which relationship bonds are professional, e.g. university, army etc.

Question 7.
Define informal group.
Answer:
A type of group in which there is complete absence of arrangement and organisations. Members of informal groups are attached to each other by friendship, personal relations, emotional bonding and respect for each other.

Question 8.
Define in-group.
Answer:
The groups having ‘we’ feeling are called ‘in-groups’. Members perceive positive characteristics for each other. The group maintains mutual dependence, trust, solidarity, harmony and sacrifice. Members are cooperative to each other and a lot of communication occurs.

Question 9.
Define out-group.
Answer:
Out groups are ‘they’ groups. These are stranger groups. Members of ‘in-group’ perecive them with negative characteristics, competition, hostility, lack of communication. For example; Congress Party members, the BJP members are Out-group and vice-versa.

Question 10.
Define reference group.
Answer:
A type of group in which we do not belong to but we aspire to be like them and therefore we try to emulate their lifestyle, e.g. for many Indian youths, Americans are a reference group. Reference groups are basis for comparison.

Question 11.
How class stratification is different from caste stratification?
Answer:
Class stratification is based on one’s economic and social status (position) whereas caste stratification is determined by birth. Class stratification is open to all but caste stratification prevents other caste members.

Question 12.
What is social control?
Answer:
Social control is a process by which stimuli are brought to bear effectively upon same person or group of persons thus producing responses that function in adjustment to the group. Social control means basically the restrictions which a society imposes over its members through various means for effective functioning of social network.

Question 13.
Define the concept of social status.
Answer:
Social status refers to the position that a person occupies in the social structure, such as a teacher or priest. It is often combined with the motion of social role. In its stranger and more specific meaning it refers to a form of social stratification in which social positions are ranked and organised by legal, political and cultural criteria into status groups.

Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the concept of social stratification.
Answer:
Social stratification refers to division of members of a society into different social categories or strata which are ranked into hierarchy, according to their relative power, prestige and wealth. It is not an individual fact, it is rather a social fact.
It refers to the ranking of a large number of individuals into hierarchy organised strata.
It has little to do with individual merits/abilities and more to do with socially patterned inequalities.
Major systems of stratification include: caste, class, gender, slavery and estate.
State main functions of stratification.

• Determination of nature of social relations.
• Stratification accelerates the process of social change.
• It is helpful in determining social order and organisation.
• Stratification functions as a safety valve from frustrations, conflict and tension because it helps to place the individuals where they actually fit in.
• Social stratification gives rise to division of labour and specialisation which helps in social integration.
• Social stratification leads to social progress through the spirit of competitions.

Question 3.
How ‘Ascribed Status’ is different from ‘Achieved Status’? (HOTS)
Answer:
Status, which an individual gets by birth or due to nominations is known as ‘Ascribed Status.’ e.g. Brahmins higher status in Hindu society is simply ‘ascribed’.
Ascribed status is determined by age, sex, birth, caste, kinship, race, class etc.
The bases of ascribed status is usually fixed and the sources of ‘Ascribed Status’ are the customs, traditions, values and names of the society.
An individual acquires ‘Achieved Status’ because of his intelligence, aptitude, efforts, diligence, skills and personality characterisation.
The sources of ‘Achieved Status’ are individual’s own personality traits and his/her ability to make best use of his/her potentials.

Question 4.
What do you understand by role?
Answer:
Role refers to the expected behaviour of an individual who holds a certain status and it is the status which determines the behaviour pattern, obligations and privileges. Role is the dynamic aspect of status. The functions which an individual performs in society are referred to as ‘Role taking’ and the functions that he/she is expected to perform are known as ‘Role expectations’.

Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.

What are social groups? Discuss various types of group.
Answer:
A number of individuals, defined by formal and informal criteria of membership, who share a feeling of unity or are bound together in relatively stable pattern of interaction are called social groups.

Sociology is primarily concerned with social relations and how these relations develop as a result of social interaction. When some people establish social relations with one another, their gathering is called a group. Direct or indirect relations between two or more people is the fundamental basis of a social group. A collection of human beings may be called a group only when it has a permanent set of patterns. The members need to influence one another by their internal activities. When members establish relationships on the basis of common characteristics and goals and influence each other, it is called a group.

Social groups differ in size, ranging from intimate associations, like a family to large collectivities such as a political party. Groups are organised system of two or more individuals. People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, knowledge and information. Group formation is a natural process of society. Proximity, similarity and common motives and goals facilitate group formation. Groups are of different types i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal and ‘in-group’ and ‘out-group’.

Primary groups are preexisting formations in which face to face interaction is possible and relationship bonds are based on personal relationship. In primary groups a person knows one another well and they establish close relationship among them, boundaries are more permeable. Secondary groups are those where relationship among members are more impersonal, indirect and less frequent. In this group it is easy to leave and join another group. Secondary groups provide experience lacking in intimacy.

Formal groups differ in degree to which the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an office organisation. The roles to be performed by group members are stated in the explicit manner. The formal and informal groups differ on the basis of structure. The formations of formal groups is based on same specific rules or laws and members have definite roles.

There are a set of norms which help in establishing order.
On the other hand, the formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws and there is close relationship among members. Formal groups are groups that are arranged and organised e.g. university. Formal groups tend to be large or a part of large organisation having a normative hierarchial structure. Informal groups are typically small and casually or spontaneously formed and function without formal rules, goals or leaders.

The term in-group refers to one’s own group, and out-group refers to another group. For in-group members, we use the word ‘we’ group while for out-group members the word ‘they’ group is used. By using the word ‘they’ and ‘we’, one is categorising people on similar or different basis. It has been found that persons in the in-group are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favourably, and have desirable traits. Members of the out-group are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the in-group members.

Perceptions of in-group and out-group affect our social lives. Co-operation and proximity are common features of in-group members. Hostile and aggressive relationship leading to conflict and competition is common feature towards out-group members. In-group members maintain mutual dependence, solidarity, faithfulness, friendship, cooperation and communication for members whereas out-groups are known as stranger group.

NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Sociology

Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Paths to Modernization

• China and Japan present a marked physical contrast.
• China is a vast continental country with many climatic zones.
• China and Japan are situated in far East Asia.
• China dominated the East in the beginning of the 19th century.
• China is dominated by three major rivers. These rivers are Huang He, the Yangtse and the Pearl river.
• A large part of China is mountainous.
• The most dominant ethnic group of China is ‘Han’ and the major language is Chinese ‘Putonghua’.
• Chinese foods reflect the regional diversity. The best known is southern or cantonese cuisine.
• Japan was divided into more than 250 domains under the rule of lords called daimyo.
• Japan is situated in the Pacific ocean.
• Japan is a string of islands. It is an archipelago consisting of more than 3,000 islands. Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido are the four largest islands of Japan.
• Japan is also known as the ‘Land of Rising Sun’.
• The Shoguns made Edo, the capital of Japan.
• The tradition of animal rearing is not prevalent.
• Edo is modem Tokyo.
• Japanese emperor was known as Mikado.
• Uighur, Hui, Manchu and Tibetan are the other nationalities of the Chinese.
• The Samurai were warriors and helped the Shogun in running the administration.
• Printing was done with wood blocks in Japan. The Japanese were not interested in European printing.
• Edo, the capital city of Japan became the most populated city in the middle of the 17th century.
• The Meiji restoration is termed as one of the most momentous events in the Japanese history.
• In 1871, under Meiji’s rule feudalism was abolished.
• Tokyo University was established under the rule of Meiji in 1877.
• Military reforms were also introduced during Meiji rule.
• In 1872, modem banking institutions were launched.
• Under Meiji’s rule new constitution was introduced.
• In 1889, Japan adopted the new constitution.
• Miyake Setsurei was a well-known Japanese philosopher.
• Miyake Setsurei believed that every nation must develop its special talent in the interest of the world civilization.
• In Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95, China faced a humiliating defeat at the hands of Japanese.
• On April 17,1895, Treaty of Shimoneski was signed between China and Japan.
• Defeat of China at the hands of Japan made China vulnerable.
• The Chinese declared after the war that both China and Japan needed reforms for modernization.
• Sino-Japanese war served the basis for the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902.
• Two opium wars were fought between China and England between 1839-42 and 1856-60 respectively.
• After the decline of Manchu empire, a republic was established in 1911 in China.
• In 1912, Dr. Sun Yat-sen formed a national party of China. It was known as Guomindang.
• The People’s Republic of China came into existence in 1949.
• In 1949, Communist Government was established in China and began a new age in the history of China.

Important terms:

• Soviet: Elected council of peasants and workers
• Daimyo: Lords of the domain under their possession.
• Shogun: Official title of sell-Taishogun.
• Zaibastu: Large business houses controlled by individual families.
• Triangular trade: Trade carried out among three countries.
• Comintern: Communist International
• Meiji: Enlightened rule
• Fukoku Kyohei: Government slogan given during Meiji period, which means rich country and strong army.
• Dim sum: Touch your heart.

Timeline
1603	Tokugawa Ieyasu establishes the Edo Shogunate.
1630	Japan closes country to Western powers except for restricted trade with the Dutch.
1839 – 60	Two Opium Wars. These wars were fought between China and Britain.
1868	Restoration of Meiji
1872	Compulsory education system. First railway line between Tokyo and Yokohama
1889	Meiji Constitution was enacted.
1894 – 95	War between Japan and China
1904 – 05	War between Japan and Russia
1912	Sun Yat-sen found Guomingdang
1914 – 18	The period of First World War
1921	CCP was founded.
1925	Universal male suffrage was granted.
1926 – 49	Civil Wars in China
1931	Japan’s invasion on China
1934	Long March
1945	Atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were dropped.
1949	People’s Republic of China Chiang Kai- shek found Republic of China in Taiwan
1956	Japan becomes a member of the United Nations.
1962	China attacks on India over border dispute

Class 11 History Notes